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THE  HISTORY 
OF  THE  JEWS 


BY 

PROFESSOR  OF  JEWISH    HISTORY   AND  LITERATUliE, 
HEBREW   UNION  COLLEGE,  CINCINNATI,  0. 


Second  Edition 
Revised  and  Enlarged 


NEW  YORK 
BLOCK  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

"the  JEWISH   BOOK   CONCERN" 
I92I 


Copyright,  1910,  1921, 
BLOCK  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


Press  of 

J.   J.   Little  &  Ives  Company 

New  York,  U.  S.  A. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


I.  From  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  586  B.C.,  to 
THE  Destruction  of  the  Second  Temple, 
70  C.E 


II.    From   the   Destruction   of  Jerusalem,   70,   to 
the  Completion  of  the  Mishnah,  200 


III.    Era  of  the  Talmud,  200-600 
Religious  History  of  the  Era 


IV.    From  the  Rise  of  Islam,  622,  to  the  era  of 
the  Crusades,  1096 


Literary  Activity  of  the  Period     . 

V.    The  Jews  of  Europe,  1040-1215 

Spiritual   Life   of   the   Period 

VI.    Period  of  Oppression,  121 5- 1492 

Jewish    Literature,    Tliirteenth    to    Fifteenth 
Century      


VII.    The  Period  of  Improvement,   1492-1791 
Intellectual   and  Literary   Life 
VIII.    The  Period  of  Emancipation  from  1791 
Culture  in  the  Nineteenth  Century 
Index         


23 
32 
34 

40 
44 

52 
54 
59 

70 

T7 

93 

100 

117 

135 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION 

There  are  two  main  difficulties  confronting  the 
historian,  when  he  attempts  to  write  history.  He 
must  always  ask  himself,  First :  Are  the  facts  which  I 
find  recorded  really  facts,  and  second :  Do  I  interpret 
them  correctly?  Thiers,  in  his  "Histoire  du  Con- 
sulat,"  Paris,  1851,  Vol.  XI,  p.  71,  speaks  of  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  the  Jews  of  Portugal,  who 
numbered  200,000,  received  the  French  troops  in  1809. 
There  were  perhaps  not  two  hundred  Jews  living  in 
Portugal  at  that  time,  and  they  played  no  part  in  pub- 
lic affairs.  In  an  address  to  the  convention  of  the 
Order  Brith  Abraham,  Mayor  Gaynor,  of  New  York, 
said  on  May  15,  1910:  "The  great  Frederick  issued 
a  general  privilege,  and  declared  it  as  a  maxim,  that 
oppression  of  the  Jews  never  brought  prosperity  to 
any  state,  and  Napoleon  not  only  followed  the  same 
course  but  convoked  the  Sanhedrin."  The  facts  are 
in  the  main  correct,  but  the  presentation  is  all  wrong. 
Frederick  issued  his  "Revidierte  Generalprivilegium" 
of  April  17,  1750,  for  the  Jews  of  Prussia,  but  it  is 
based  on  the  mediaeval  idea  of  restrictions  in  the  most 
elementary  rights  of  human  beings.  His  sentiment 
with  regard  to  the  Jews  is  evident  from  a  letter  which 
he  wrote  to  the  Minister  von  Hoym,  May  17,  1780,  in 
which  he  says :  "If  the  Jews  were  expelled  and  Chris- 
tians would  take  their  places  as  innkeepers,  it  would 
be  for  the  good  of  the  country,  and  we  would  have 
more  human  beings  and  less  Jews"  (Monatsschrift 
flier  die  Geschichte  und  Wissenschaft  des  Jiidentums, 
1895,  p.  379).  Napoleon  had  by  the  convocation  of 
the  "Assembly  of  Jewish  Notables"  and  the  subse- 
quent Sanhedrin,  1806-1807,  insulted  the  Jews.  The 
law  of  September  27,  1791,  had  declared  them  as  citi- 

5 


6  PREFACE 

zens,  and  he  asked  them  whether  they  considered 
France  as  their  fatherland,  and  when  these  and  simi- 
lar questions  were  answered  in  the  affirm.ative  with 
emphatic  protestation  of  loyalty.  Napoleon  neverthe- 
less reintroduced  the  mediaeval  principle  of  Jewish  dis- 
abilities by  issuing  laws  restricting  Jews  in  doing 
business  on  credit.  The  facts  quoted  by  Mayor  Gaynor 
prove  the  opposite  of  what  he  wished  to  prove  by  them. 

These  instances  taken  from  Jewish  history  could  be 
multiplied  endlessly  from  every  period  and  every  sec- 
tion of  the  world's  history.  Jewish  history  has  to  con- 
tend with  two  additional  difficulties.  It  extends  over 
every  part  of  the  civilized  world,  but  it  lacks  chrono- 
logical sequence,  at  least  until  we  come  to  modern 
times.  Another  difficulty  is  that  it  deals  with  almost 
every  known  spiritual  activity  of  mankind.  The  stu- 
dent, in  order  to  understand  Jewish  history,  should 
know  the  constantly  shifting  boundary  lines  of  the 
Italian  states  from  mediaeval  times  until  1870,  and  he 
should  know  something  of  the  morphological  theories 
of  Hebrew  grammar  and  of  scholastic  philosophy. 

These  difficulties  make  themselves  especially  felt  in 
a  brief  manual,  and,  no  doubt,  every  teacher  of  Jew- 
ish history  must  have  had  such  an  experience.  The 
Rabbis  (Sanhedrin  93,  b)  find  fault  with  Nehemiah 
for  having  spoken  ill  of  his  predecessors  in  office  (Neh. 
V,  15).  I  do  not  wish  to  incur  the  same  censure.  It  re- 
mains for  the  student  and  the  teacher  who  use  my 
book  to  judge  whether  I  improved  upon  my  predeces- 
sors. My  object  was  to  place  in  the  hand  of  the  stu- 
dent, who  is  guided  by  a  capable  teacher,  a  concise 
and  yet  readable  manual  of  the  whole  post-biblical 
history.  The  biblical  period  I  intentionally  omit- 
ted, in  order  to  avoid  contested  ground  and  to  allow 
the  book  to  be  used  in  all  schools  regardless  of 
dogmatic  differences. 

GOTTHARD  DeUTSCH. 

Cincinnati,  O.,  July,  1910. 


PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

It  is  not  frequent  that  an  author  on  any  Jewish 
subject  receives  the  encouragement  of  a  demand  for 
a  second  edition  of  his  book.  My  volume  of  Jewish 
history  which  is  again  submitted  to  the  pubHc,  in- 
tended primarily  as  a  manual  of  instruction,  is  re- 
vised chiefly  by  being  brought  up  to  date.  This  re- 
vision became  necessary  owing  to  the  great  changes 
which  the  World  War  has  produced  in  Central  and 
Eastern  Europe.  Desiring  not  to  enlarge  the  book  too 
much,  I  have  added  merely  the  most  important  facts 
and  names  in  modern  Jewish  history.  In  the  chap- 
ters dealing  with  the  older  epochs,  only  a  few  in- 
significant additions  have  been  made.  Other  changes 
are  merely  textual.  It  still  remains  for  the  intelligent 
teacher  to  explain  the  facts  given  in  the  book  which, 
by  the  very  nature  of  its  intention,  makes  dry  read- 
ing for  the  uninitiated. 

Every  history,  no  matter  how  large,  is  bound  to  be 
selective.  My  book,  therefore,  like  every  other  on 
the  subject,  will  be  open  to  criticism  in  regard  to 
omissions.  In  the  modern  period  especially,  I  have  no 
doubt  that  some  one  will  find  certain  names  omitted, 
but  I  have  conscientiously  weighed  the  question  in 
every  instance  and  believe  to  have  been  impartial  and 
to  have  deserved  from  fair-minded  critics  the  Tal- 
mudic  compliment — that  an  author  is  to  be  com- 
mended both  for  what  he  includes  and  for  what  he 
excludes. 

GOTTHARD  DeuTSCH. 

Cincinnati,  O.,  November,  1920. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 


CHAPTER  I 

FROM  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY  (586  B.C.)  TO  THE 
DESTEUCTION  OF  THE  SECOND  TEMPLE  (70  C.E.) 

Palestine,  the  buffer  state  between  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia,  the  two  rival  powers  of  the  ancient 
world,  was  an  important  base  of  operations  for  all 
conquerors,  and  its  possession  was  eagerly  sought. 
In  722  B.C.,  King  Sargon  of  Assyria  conquered  the 
northern  part,  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The  southern 
part,  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  was  at  that  time  pro- 
tected by  Assyria's  rising  and  already  powerful  rival, 
the  Babylonian  empire.  When  Babylonia  had  be- 
come the  mistress  of  Mesopotamia,  Judsea's  doom  was 
sealed,  and  in  586  Nebuchadnezzar  captured  Jerusalem 
and  made  all  of  Palestine  a  province  of  his  large 
empire. 

With  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  great  Baby- 
lonian empire  declined  rapidly,  and  in  539,  Cyrus,  the 
King  of  Persia,  captured  the  city  of  Babylon,  and 
became  the  master  of  the  whole  of  the  Babylonian 
empire,  and  so  of  Palestine.  He  was  favorably  in- 
clined to  the  Jews,  and  gave  permission  to  the  descend- 

9 


10  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

ants  of  the  exiles  from  Palestine  to  return  to  the  land 
of  their  fathers.  Only  a  few  thousand  made  use  of 
this,  and  returned  under  the  leadership  of  Zerubbabel, 
a  descendant  of  the  House  of  David,  and  of  Joshua 
ben  Jehozadak,  the  high  priest.  Of  the  right  to  build 
the  Temple  they  made  no  use  for  the  time,  but 
erected  instead  an  altar  on  the  site  of  the  former 
edifice.  The  development  of  the  new  commonwealth, 
however,  was  slow,  until  Ezra,  a  man  learned  in  the 
law,  and,  therefore,  called  the  Scribe,  returned  from 
Babylonia  in  458  B.C.  and  taught  the  people  the  law 
of  God.  He  was  joined  in  445  B.C.  by  Nehemiah^ 
the  cupbearer  of  the  Persian  King  Artaxerxes,  who 
received  permission  from  his  ruler  to  go  to  Palestine 
and  assist  Ezra  in  his  work.  He  succeeded,  after 
many  difficulties,  in  rebuilding  the  walls  of  Jerusalem 
and  giving  the  new  community  a  firm  organization. 
In  432  B.C.  he  returned  to  his  post  at  the  King's 
Court,  but  upon  learning  that  the  new  community 
was  sufifering  from  many  difficulties,  he  returned  again 
to  Palestine  to  finish  his  work  there. 

There  was  in  Egypt  an  old  Jewish  population  prob- 
ably dating  back  to  the  time  of  Jeremiah,  who  led 
some  Jews  from  Palestine  to  Egypt  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple.  Documents,  discovered  in  the 
Elephantine  Island  in  the  Upper  Nile  between  the 
years  1898  and  1908,  and  written  in  Aramaic,  prove 
that  Jews  lived  in  Assuan  partly  as  a  military  colony 
from  the  time  when  Egypt  was  under  Persian  rule. 
They  possessed  a  synagogue  and  were  in  contact  with 
the  religious  authorities  in  Palestine. 

Far  more  important  is  the  prosperous  and  cultured 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  11 

Jewish  community  in  Alexandria,  which  reached  great 
importance  after  the  conquest  of  the  Orient  by  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Its  members  were  highly  cultured, 
speaking  the  Greek  language  and  knowing  the  Bible 
only  in  Greek.  Among  them  were  a  number  of  au- 
thors writing  on  various  subjects.  The  most  im- 
portant member  of  this  class  of  writers  was  Philo  (20 
B.C. — 50  C.E.),  whose  works  on  philosophy,  mostly 
devoted  to  the  defence  of  Judaism  against  the  at- 
tacks of  Greek  authors,  are  to  this  day  an  important 
monument  of  this  epoch  and  they  have  undoubtedly 
contributed  greatly  to  the  development  of  Christianity, 
helping  to  bring  about  a  harmonization  between  Juda- 
ism and  Greek  culture. 

It  seems  that  the  Jews  lived  in  peace,  for  during 
the  following  century,  while  they  were  under  Persian 
rule,  only  two  incidents  are  recorded.  In  the  reign 
of  Artaxerxes  III,  Ochus  (358-337  B.C.),  the  Jews 
rebelled ;  but  the  king  defeated  them  near  Jericho 
and  sent  the  rebels  to  Hyrcania  into  exile.  About 
the  same  time  the  high  priest,  Johanan,  killed  his 
brother,  Joshua,  in  the  Temple,  and  the  Persian  gov- 
ernor fined  the  Jews  very  heavily. 

Not  long  afterwards  the  mighty  Persian  empire  was 
conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great  (333  B.C.),  and  the 
Jews  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  Macedonian  king. 

There  are  various  legends  about  Alexander's  kind- 
ness to  the  Jews,  especially  one  which  states  that  he 
showed  great  respect  to  the  high  priest.  There  is 
also  a  report  that  he  exempted  the  Jews  from  paying 
taxes  in  the  Sabbatical  year.  His  immense  empire 
fell  to  pieces  soon  after  his  early  death,  and  various 


12  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

generals  fought  for  a  portion  of  the  inheritance,  each 
expecting  to  become  the  successor  of  the  great  con- 
queror. Palestine  with  Syria  was  first  occupied  by 
Ptolemy,  who  founded  the  dynasty  named  after  him 
in  Egypt  in  320  B.C.  He  lost  it  to  another  general, 
Antigonus  (315  B.C.),  who  was  defeated  by  Seleucus 
at  the  battle  of  Gaza  (312  B.C.),  after  which  the  king- 
dom of  Syria  with  Antioch  as  its  capital  was  founded. 
The  Syrians  counted  their  era  from  this  date  and 
the  Jews  adopted  this  custom,  keeping  it  up  until  late 
in  mediaeval  times.  The  struggle  continued  until,  in 
301  B.C.,  the  battle  of  Ipsus  decided  the  issue  in 
favor  of  Ptolemy  and  Palestine  was  united  with  Egypt 
until  Antiochus  IH  of  Syria  annexed  it  to  his  domin- 
ions in  198  B.C. 

The  Jews  seem  to  have  been  treated  with  fairness 
until  Antiochus  IV,  Epiphanes  (175-164  B.C.),  suc- 
ceeded his  father.  The  latter  had  been  defeated  by 
the  Romans  in  the  battle  of  Magnesia  (189  B.C.),  and 
Antiochus  IV  was  sent  as  hostage  to  Rome.  Knowing 
that  the  Romans  watched  the  growth  of  the  Syrian 
kingdom  with  great  jealousy  lest  it  should  become  a 
powerful  rival,  he  tried  to  consolidate  his  states  and 
for  this  reason  wished  to  remove  everything  which 
kept  the  Jews  apart  from  their  neighbors.  In  his 
attempt  to  Hellenize  the  Jews  he  was  supported  by 
a  party  among  them.  Joseph,  the  son  of  Tobias,  and 
the  nephew  of  Onias  II,  the  High  Priest,  had  already 
under  the  Egyptian  kings  been  appointed  tax  collector 
and  was  very  powerful.  He  and  his  family  sup- 
ported the  Syrian  kings  in  their  desire  to  Hellenize 
the  Jews. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  13 

Simon,  a  member  of  this  family,  quarrelled  with 
the  High  Priest,  Onias  III,  and  in  order  to  revenge 
himself  he  informed  the  Syrian  government  that  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem  contained  large  treasures.  Helio- 
dorus  was  sent  to  Jerusalem,  but  for  some  reason 
which  legend  has  obscured  by  miraculous  tales,  he 
was  prevented  from  looting  the  treasury.  Onias  was 
called  to  Antioch  to  answer  certain  charges  of  dis- 
loyalty, while  his  brother  Joshua,  or  Jason  as  he 
called  himself,  took  his  place.  Jason  offered  Antiochus 
a  higher  tribute  than  his  brother  had  paid,  and  de- 
clared his  willingness  to  support  the  king  in  intro- 
ducing Greek  customs  among  the  Jews.  He  became 
high  priest,  but  shortly  afterwards  Menelaus,  another 
member  of  the  family,  offered  Antiochus  a  still  higher 
tribute  and  was  made  high  priest  in  Jason's  place. 
Unable  to  pay  the  sum  he  had  promised,  he  appro- 
priated valuable  pieces  from  the  Temple  treasury  to 
bribe  the  King's  officials.  Onias  reproached  him  and 
was  assassinated  upon  his  order. 

This  fact  embittered  the  Jews.  Menelaus  was 
charged  with  sacrilege,  but  as  he  possessed  great  in- 
fluence the  case  was  dismissed  and  his  opponents 
were  executed.  These  events  enraged  the  Jews  still 
more,  and  when  in  170  B.C.  Antiochus  was  in  Egypt 
engaged  in  warfare,  the  Jews  rebelled  at  the  false 
report  of  his  death.  Antiochus  returned  and  took 
bitter  revenge,  pillaging  the  city  and  desecrating  the 
Temple.  Two  years  later  he  sent  his  general,  Apollo- 
nius,  to  punish  the  rebels  and  the  latter  did  it  in  the 
most  cruel  manner.  At  the  same  time  a  strong  fort 
was  built  in  Jerusalem  and  the  practice  of  the  Jewish 


14  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

religion,  particularly  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath 
and  the  dietary  laws,  and  the  study  of  the  Torah  pro- 
hibited, on  the  ground  that  they  tended  to  keep  the 
Jews  aloof  from  their  neighbors.  At  the  same  time 
an  altar  to  Zeus  was  erected  in  the  Temple  and 
other  heathenish  altars  placed  in  various  cities.  The 
Jews  were  compelled  under  penalty  of  death  to  offer 
sacrifices  to  the  Greek  gods. 

The  pious  people  fled  from  Jerusalem  into  the  wil- 
derness in  order  to  escape  the  fulfillment  of  the  king's 
orders.  Among  the  leaders  of  those  who  were  deter- 
mined rather  to  die  than  give  up  their  religion  was 
Mattathiah,  an  aged  priest  of  the  family  of  the  Hasmo- 
naeans.  In  the  little  town  of  Modin  he  killed  a  Jew 
who  made  preparations  to  offer  sacrifice  on  the  hea- 
thenish altar,  and  an  officer  was  sent  to  execute  the 
king's  decree.  This  was  the  signal  for  rebellion. 
Mattathiah  had  five  sons  of  whom  Judah,  called  the 
Maccabee,  was  the  leader  in  battle.  Judah  gathered 
a  small  number  of  the  faithful  around  him  and  suc- 
ceeded in  defeating  various  generals  and  finally  the 
viceroy,  Lysias.  Then  he  entered  Jerusalem,  removed 
all  traces  of  idolatry  from  the  Temple  and  rededicated 
it  to  the  service  of  God  in  165  B.C.  Shortly  after- 
wards, in  164  B.C.,  Antiochus  IV  died  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Antiochus  V,  still  a  boy,  for  whom 
Lysias  governed  as  regent.  The  last  having  many 
difficulties  to  contend  with,  granted  the  Jews  religious 
freedom.  He  and  the  young  king,  however,  were 
soon  killed,  and  Demetrius  I,  a  nephew  of  Antiochus 
IV,  came  to  the  throne  in  162  B.C. 

Demetrius  continued  to  give  the  Jews  religious  free- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  15 

dom,  but  he  appointed  a  high  priest  named  Alkymus, 
whom  the  people  disHked,  and  so  the  rebellion  started 
anew.  Judah  defeated  the  general  Nikanor  in  161 
B.C.,  but  a  year  later  he  fell  in  battle  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  Jonathan.  Meantime  Syria  was 
torn  to  pieces  amid  constant  rebellion  caused  by  vari- 
ous claimants  to  the  throne,  each  of  whom  tried  to 
win  the  Jews  over  to  his  side  in  order  to  obtain  a 
free  hand  in  fighting  his  rivals.  Thus  Jonathan  was 
confirmed  as  high  priest  by  the  Syrian  king  (153 
B.C.),  but  later  on,  being  distrusted,  was  assassinated 
by  the  Syrian  governor,  Tryphon  (143  B.C.).  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  last  surviving  son  of  Mattathiah, 
Simon  (143-135  B.C.).  Simon  drove  the  Syrian  gar- 
rison from  the  fort  at  Jerusalem  and  was  not  only 
confirmed  as  high  priest  but  also  as  ruler  of  the  Jews. 
He  manifested  his  sovereignty  by  issuing  coins  bearing 
his  name. 

The  Romans,  who  were  glad  to  see  the  power  of 
the  Syrian  king  weakened,  formed  an  alliance  with 
him,  and  so  Israel  was  again  an  independent  nation. 
Simon  was  assassinated  by  Ptolemy,  his  own  son- 
in-law,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John  Hyrcanus 
(135-105  B.C.),  who  assumed  the  title  of  king  and 
was  at  the  same  time  the  high  priest.  The  Syrian 
kingdom  became  altogether  dismembered,  and  John 
Hyrcanus,  aided  by  the  Romans,  united  under  his 
sceptre  not  only  the  Jews  living  in  Palestine  but  also 
conquered  those  parts  of  the  country  which  were  in- 
habited by  other  nations.  The  Idumaeans  and  the 
Samaritans  were  forcibly  converted  to  Judaism.  With 
the  growing  power  of  the  new  kingdom  the  religious 


16  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

life  of  the  ruling  classes  became  weakened  and  the 
king  alienated  those  people  who  had  formerly  been 
the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the  Maccabsean  re- 
bellion. Two  parties  were  formed,  one  called  the 
Sadducees,  after  the  High  Priest  Zadok,  was  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  government,  while  the  other,  the  Phari- 
sees, became  its  opponent.  The  Pharisees  (separatists) 
believed  in  freedom  only  as  a  means  of  protection  of 
their  religious  life,  and  therefore  opposed  the  king, 
who  wasted  the  resources  of  the  country  in  wars  of 
conquest. 

Hyrcanus  was  succeeded  by  Aristobulus,  his  son, 
with  whose  reign  a  period  of  family  feuds  and  palace 
intrigues  began.  He  ordered  his  brother  Antigonus  to 
be  killed  and  died  soon  afterwards,  having  reigned 
but  one  year  (105-104  B.C.).  His  successor  was  his 
brother  Alexander  Jannai  (104-78  B.C.).  The  latter's 
highest  ambition  was  to  become  a  conqueror  and  he 
carried  on  constant  but  unsuccessful  warfare  with 
Arabic  chieftains,  and  with  the  Egyptians  and  other 
neighbors.  The  people  rebelled  against  him,  but  he 
quelled  all  uprisings  with  extreme  cruelty,  and  on 
one  occasion  had  six  thousand  pilgrims  massacred  in 
the  courtyard  of  the  Temple.  The  Pharisees  were 
particularly  the  objects  of  his  hatred. 

Upon  his  death  his  wife,  Salome  Alexandra,  came 
to  the  throne  (78-69  B.C.).  She  made  peace  with 
the  Pharisees,  whose  leader  Simeon  ben  Shetach  was 
her  brother,  and  her  reign  was  happier  than  that  of 
her  husband.  Upon  her  death  she  left  two  sons, 
Hyrcanus  H  and  Aristobulus,  of  whom  the  first  was 
to  be  high  priest,  while  the  second  was  to  be  king. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  17 

But  they  soon  quarrelled,  and  Hyrcanus,  who  was 
a  tool  in  the  hands  of  Antipater,  an  Idumaean,  his 
adviser,  declared  himself  king.  In  the  subsequent  civil 
war,  Pompey,  the  Roman  general  and  statesman,  was 
asked  to  act  as  arbitrator.  He  conquered  Jerusalem, 
entered  the  Temple,  and  declared  in  favor  of  Hyrcan- 
us, who,  however,  was  not  made  king,  but  given  the 
title  of  Ethnarch.  Aristobulus  was  sent  to  Rome  and 
the  cities  inhabited  by  Syrians  were  annexed  to  the 
province  of  Syria  (60  B.C.).  Aristobulus'  son,  Alex- 
ander, the  son-in-law  of  Hyrcanus,  rebelled,  but  was 
defeated  in  57  B.C.  In  the  following  year  Aristobulus 
fled  from  Rome  and  organized  a  rebellion,  but  was 
soon  defeated  and  sent  a  prisoner  to  Rome  with  his 
son  Antigonus. 

Crassus,  governor  of  Syria,  entered  the  Temple  and 
looted  the  treasury  (54  B.C.).  Shortly  afterwards  he 
fell  in  battle  and  the  Jews  rebelled  again,  but  the 
uprising  was  cruelly  suppressed,  30,000  being  sold 
into  slavery  (53  B.C.).  Caesar,  who  was  now  the 
ruler  of  Rome,  liberated  Aristobulus  to  use  him  against 
his  rival  Pompey,  but  Aristobulus  was  poisoned  and 
his  son  Alexander  executed  (49  B.C.).  Hyrcanus  and 
Antipater  joined  Caesar,  who  confirmed  the  former  as 
Ethnarch  and  bestowed  high  distinction  on  the  latter 
(47  B.C.).  Antipater's  son,  Herod,  was  made  gov- 
ernor of  Galilee,  and  as  such  executed  the  insurgent 
leader,  Hezekiah,  and  put  down  the  rebellion.  Called 
before  the  Sanhedrin  for  executing  a  citizen  without 
trial,  he  defied  the  court,  knowing  that  he  had  the 
support  of  the  Romans.  After  Caesar's  assassina- 
tion Antipater  joined  Cassius,  but  was  himself  assas- 


18  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

sinated  (42  B.C.).  His  sons,  however,  remained  in 
power,  and  after  the  battle  of  Philippi  they  joined 
Antony,  who  confirmed  them  as  governors  (42  B.C.). 
Antigonus,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  now  returned,  as- 
sisted by  the  Parthians,  enemies  of  Rome,  and  was 
made  high  priest,  combining  again  the  dignity  of  king 
and  high  priest  (40-37  B.C.).  Herod  fled  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  appointed  King  of  the  Jews  by  the 
Senate,  Returning  to  Palestine  he  defeated  Antigonus 
and  reigned  as  king  (37-34  B.C.).  He  married  Mari- 
amne,  the  granddaughter  of  Hyrcanus  and  Aristo- 
bulus, and  appointed  her  brother,  Aristobulus,  as  high 
priest.  Becoming  jealous  of  his  popularity,  he  caused 
him  to  be  assassinated  soon  afterward. 

Herod's  reign  was  marked  by  its  splendor,  but  he 
was  hated  by  the  people  for  his  extreme  cruelty.  He 
had  his  wife,  Mariamne,  three  of  his  sons,  the  old 
High  Priest  Hyrcanus  H,  and  various  other  members 
of  his  family,  assassinated.  His  unpopularity  grew  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  the  country  was  prosperous  and 
that  he  rebuilt  the  Temple  in  magnificent  style.  As  a 
descendant  of  the  Idumseans,  whom  Hyrcanus  I  had 
converted  to  Judaism,  he  was  considered  a  foreigner 
who  held  his  power  only  through  the  assistance  of 
Rome.  From  this  time  the  name  Edom  became  a 
synonym  for  Rome  in  Jewish  Literature. 

Herod  left  three  sons,  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipas, 
and  Philip,  among  whom  he  divided  his  empire.  Arche- 
laus received  Judaea,  Samaria  and  Idumaea.  He  was 
to  reside  in  Jerusalem  and  have  the  title  of  king.  Herod 
Antipas  was  given  dominion  over  Galilee  and  Peraea, 
and  Philip  received  the  northern  district;  both  were 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  19 

to  be  called  Tetrarchs.  In  Archelaus'  kingdom  a  re- 
volt broke  out  at  once,  and  3,000  people  were  killed 
in  the  Temple  courtyard.  When  he  went  to  Rome  to 
obtain  confirmation  of  his  title  another  rebellion  broke 
out  because  of  the  cruelty  of  the  Roman  commander, 
and  once  more  a  great  number  of  people  were  killed 
and  the  Temple  sacked.  Governor  Varus  was  called 
from  Syria  to  quell  the  contest  and  did  so  with  great 
cruelty.  The  Roman  Emperor  Augustus  confirmed 
Archelaus  as  ruler  of  Judaea  but  refused  him  the 
title  of  king;  he  was  merely  called  Ethnarch.  Un- 
able to  control  the  people,  who  hated  him,  he  was 
deposed  and  exiled  to  Gaul,  and  his  land  made  a  part 
of  the  Roman  province  of  Syria  (6  C.E.).  The  Roman 
governors  carried  on  an  arbitrary  and  oppressive  rule. 
A  census  ordered  by  Quirinius  was  bitterly  resisted 
and  almost  led  to  open  rebellion.  A  party  of  Zealots 
was  formed  under  the  leadership  of  Judah,  the  son  of 
Hezekiah,  whom  Herod  had  executed.  Their  object 
was  to  overthrow  the  Roman  rule,  and  for  this  purpose 
they  began  a  reign  of  terror  against  all  people  who 
were  supposed  to  be  in  sympathy  with  Rome,  and 
assassinations  were  of  daily  occurrence. 

One  of  the  most  cruel  of  the  Roman  governors, 
Pontius  Pilate  (26-36),  in  every  possible  way  pro- 
voked the  religious  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  on 
the  slightest  show  of  resistance,  ordered  wholesale 
butcheries  of  them.  Many  complaints  were  sent  to 
Rome  and  he  was  finally  recalled.  Under  his  admin- 
istration the  execution  of  Jesus  is  reported  to  have 
taken  place.  Emperor  Caligula  (37-41),  a  typical 
megalomaniac,  ordered  his  bust  placed  in  the  Temple. 


20  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Petronius,  the  military  commander,  reported  that  it 
was  impossible  to  execute  this  order  without  driving 
the  people  into  open  rebellion,  and  so  Caligula  modi- 
fied his  demand.  Only  his  assassination  prevented 
an  outbreak  of  the  people.  He  was  a  friend  of 
Agrippa,  the  son  of  Aristobulus,  and  the  grandson  of 
Herod  and  Mariamne,  and  showered  his  favors  upon 
him.  Agrippa  was  first  appointed  the  successor  of 
his  uncle  Philip  with  the  title  of  king,  in  Z7 .  Upon 
the  death  of  Herod  Antipas,  Galilee  was  added  to 
his  dominion,  and  finally  Emperor  Claudius,  upon  his 
succession  to  the  throne  in  41,  gave  him  Judaea  also, 
so  that  he  thus  obtained  the  full  heritage  of  his  grand- 
father Herod.  While  a  favorite  of  Rome,  Agrippa 
was  beloved  by  the  people,  but  he  died  in  the  prime 
of  his  life  in  44.  His  brother  Herod,  who  was  his 
successor,  possessed  no  other  right  except  to  appoint 
the  high  priest;  similarly  Agrippa's  son,  Agrippa  II, 
while  honored  with  the  title  of  king,  had  practically 
no  power.  For  at  the  death  of  Agrippa  I,  Palestine 
was  again  placed  under  Roman  governors,  seven  of 
whom  held  office  from  44  to  66  and  did  their  utmost 
to  drive  the  people  into  despair  by  cruel  executions 
and  wanton  disregard  of  religious  feeling.  The  reign 
of  terror  continuing,  a  party  called  Sicarii,  from  Sica, 
a  dagger,  which  they  always  carried  under  their  gar- 
ments for  the  punishment  of  those  who  were  sus- 
pected of  Roman  sympathies,  arose  and  spread  anarchy 
all  through  the  land. 

The  last  of  the  governors,  Gessius  Florus,  was  the 
worst  of  all  who  held  this  office.  His  extortions  and 
murders  drove  the  people  into  despair.     Especially  in 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  21 

Caesarea,  where  the  majority  of  the  population  was 
Greek,  and  constantly  attacked  the  Jews,  he  refused  to 
grant  them  protection.  Agrippa  H  made  an  attempt 
to  pacify  the  Jews  and  persuade  them  to  send  a  com- 
mittee to  Rome,  but  without  avail.  The  daily  sacri- 
fice on  behalf  of  the  Emperor  was  discontinued,  which 
was  the  signal  for  open  rebellion  (66). 

The  Jews  fortified  the  Temple,  captured  several 
Roman  forts,  including  that  of  Jerusalem,  and  Cestius 
Gallus,  the  commander  of  Syria,  was  defeated.  Ves- 
pasian, the  ablest  general  of  the  Roman  army,  was 
placed  in  command  and  began  the  war  in  Galilee, 
where  Flavius  Josephus,  the  famous  historian,  was  in 
command  of  the  revolutionary  forces  (67).  Josephus 
was  besieged  in  the  fortress  of  Jotapat,  and,  after 
weeks  of  hard  fighting,  surrendered.  In  the  fall  of 
67  all  of  Galilee  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

In  68  Vespasian  conquered  the  land  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan, while  in  Jerusalem  the  reign  of  terror  continued 
and  the  Zealots  wasted  their  forces  in  a  bloody  civil 
war.  Meantime  a  revolution  had  broken  out  in  Rome 
and  Nero  had  committed  suicide  (68).  Three  em- 
perors followed  each  other  in  quick  succession  and 
the  internal  troubles  caused  Vespasian  to  temporize  in 
his  warfare.  But  by  69  he  had  conquered  the  whole 
land  with  the  exception  of  Jerusalem  and  three  forti- 
fied cities  held  by  the  patriots.  In  this  year  he  was 
proclaimed  Emperor  and  went  to  Rome,  leaving  the 
work  of  continuing  the  war  to  his  son  Titus. 

Titus  began  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  April,  70, 
and  at  once  the  internal  feuds  ceased,  the  besieged 
doing  their  utmost  to  defend  the  place.     Titus  had 


22  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

to  take  the  city  step  by  step.  Finally,  on  August 
10th,  the  Temple,  the  last  retreat  of  the  patriots,  was 
stormed  and  destroyed  by  fire.  Those  who  survived 
intrenched  themselves  in  the  upper  city  and  continued 
their  resistance  until  September  7th.  According  to 
Josephus,  1,100,000  perished  in  the  war  and  97,000 
were  made  captives  and  sold  as  slaves  or  taken  to  the 
circus,  where  they  were  torn  to  pieces  by  wild  beasts. 
Seven  hundred,  selected  from  the  noblest  families, 
were  taken  to  Rome  to  be  shown  with  the  holy 
vessels  captured  in  the  Temple  in  the  triumphal  march. 
An  arch  of  triumph  was  erected  as  a  memorial  of 
victory,  which  is  still  standing  in  Rome.  Titus  left 
the  siege  of  the  three  remaining  fortresses  to  his 
captains.  They  spent  three  more  years  in  reducing 
them;  Massada,  the  last  one,  falling  in  73.  The  last 
defenders  of  the  place  killed  themselves  in  order  to 
escape  being  taken  alive  by  the  Romans.  Thus  the 
last  vestige  of  the  independent  Jewish  kingdom,  found- 
ed by  the  Maccabees,  disappeared. 


CHAPTER  II 

FBOM     THE     DESTRUCTION     OF     JERUSALEM     (70)     TO     THE 
COMPLETION    OF    THE    JVnSHNAH    (200) 

The  destruction  of  Jerusalem  had  thrown  the  Jew- 
ish people  into  a  terrible  crisis.  Although  the  Jews, 
as  individuals,  did  not  fare  worse  than  during  the  pre- 
ceding one  hundred  and  thirty  years,  Judaea  was  now 
a  province  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

The  only  new  law,  enforced  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  was  that  of  a  special  tax  of  two  Drachmae, 
which  every  male  had  to  pay.  This  tax,  called  "Eiscus 
Judaicus,"  took  the  place  of  the  half-shekel  formerly 
paid  by  every  male  Jew  into  the  treasury  of  the  Tem- 
ple, according  to  the  Rabbinic  interpretation  of  the 
Law  in  Exodus  xxx,  11-16.  Some  of  the  Jews  were 
sold  into  slavery;  some  went  to-  Rome,  where  they 
swelled  the  congregation  existing  there  since  the 
second  century  B.C.,  and  where  they  had  several 
synagogues  and  catacombs  used  as  cemeteries.  Others 
again  emigrated  to  Babylonia,  where  a  Jewish  settle- 
ment existed  since  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  or  settled  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Under  Domitian,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Titus 
(81-96),  the  tribute  of  the  "Fiscus  Judaicus"  was 
exacted  with  great  severity.  Domitian  was  altogether 
hostile  to  the  Jews ;  yet  in  his  reign  Jewish  propa- 

23 


24  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

ganda  increased  in  Rome,  and  people  belonging  to 
the  highest  class  of  society,  among  them  Flavins 
Clemens,  a  nephew  of  the  Emperor,  with  his  wife 
Clementina  were  converted  to  Judaism.  Flavins 
Clemens  was  put  to  death  and  his  wife  exiled  for  their 
change  of  faith,  as  the  Roman  law  considered  it  a 
crime,  and  called  it  atheism.  Dio'  Cassius,  the  his- 
torian of  Rome,  speaks  of  a  class  of  people  who  were 
not  Jews  by  descent,  but  had  adopted  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion. Similar  proofs  of  the  existence  of  a  Jewish 
propaganda  are  found  in  the  New  Testament  (Mat- 
thew xxiii,  25)  where  the  Pharisees  are  denounced 
for  their  efforts  in  making  converts,  and  in  the  daily 
service,  composed  about  one  hundred,  in  which  a 
special  prayer  for  the  proselytes  is  offered. 

Under  Emperor  Nerva  (96-98)  the  "Fiscus  Ju- 
daicus"  is  said  to  have  been  abolished. 

Under  Trajan  (98-117),  serious  rebellions  of  the 
Jews  occurred  in  Egypt,  Cyprus,  Cyrene  (the  present 
Tripoli),  and  Mesopotamia.  About  the  causes  of  the 
disorder  and  the  battles  of  the  rebellion,  we  know 
nothing  definite.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  in  all 
likelihood  oppressive  taxation,  cruel  treatment  of  the 
people  by  the  Roman  officials,  and  the  traditional 
enmity  between  the  Jews  and  the  Greek-speaking  popu- 
lation of  the  Orient  were  the  causes  of  this  constant 
friction.  Trajan  sent  his  general,  Quietus,  to  quell 
the  uprising,  and  made  him  governor  of  Palestine. 
The  insurrection  was  still  in  progress  when  Hadrian 
came  to  the  throne  ( 11 7- 136) .  At  first  he  was  friendly 
toward  the  Jews  and  began  to  rebuild  the  Temple,  by 
which  he  hoped  to  reconcile  them.    This  new  Temple, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  25 

however,  was  to  be  dedicated  to  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Capitol,  who,  as  Hadrian  tried  to  make  the  Jews  be- 
lieve, was  also  their  God,  although  he  had  a  different 
name.  As  the  Jews,  however,  were  not  wilHng  to 
accept  this  condition,  Hadrian  resorted  to  severe  re- 
ligious persecution.  He  prohibited  the  practices  of 
the  Sabbath,  circumcision,  and  the  study  of  the  Law. 
The  result  was  another  rebellion  under  the  leadership 
of  Simeon  Bar  Koziba,  who  adopted  the  name  of 
Bar  Kochba — "The  Son  of  the  Star" — with  refer- 
ence to  the  prophecy  of  the  star  which  would  smite 
the  enemies  of  Israel  (Num.  xxiv,  17).  Bar  Kochba, 
who  called  himself  Prince  of  Israel,  and  had  coins 
struck  with  his  name,  was  supported  by  a  priest, 
Eleazar  of  Modin,  and  by  Rabbi  Akiba.  Details  of 
this  war  are  unknown.  It  lasted,  however,  over  three 
years  (132-135),  and  then  was  quelled  by  Tineius 
Rufus  and  Julius  Severus,  the  latter  having  been 
called  from  Great  Britain  to  take  some  of  the  troops 
against  the  rebels.  The  victory  was  complete.  What- 
ever had  been  left  of  Jerusalem  after  its  destruction  by 
Titus  was  destroyed.  The  city  was  called  ^lia  Capi- 
tolina,  in  honor  of  Hadrian,  whose  first  name  was 
^lius  and  in  honor  of  the  Jupiter  of  the  Capitol, 
to  whom  the  Temple,  built  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Temple  of  Solomon,  was  erected.  Over  one  of  the 
gates  of  the  city  Hadrian  had  the  head  of  a  swine 
placed,  and  the  Jews  were  forbidden  entrance  into 
the  city.  A  great  many  Jews  were  killed  in  battle 
and  many  prisoners,  including  the  most  prominent 
spiritual  leaders  of  the  rebellion,  such  as  Rabbi  Akiba, 
executed.    A  mediaeval  legend  speaks  of  ten  martyrs. 


26  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

and  gives  a  list  which,  however,  comprises  men  who 
Hved  in  different  ages. 

With  the  death  of  Hadrian,  and  the  succession  to 
the  throne  of  Marcus  Antoninus  Pius  (136-161)  a 
change  for  the  better  took  place.  We  are  informed 
that,  upon  the  representations  of  prominent  Jews, 
Antoninus  repealed  the  cruel  laws  passed  by  his  pre- 
decessor. Jewish  legends  have  preserved  the  name 
of  Antoninus  Pius  as  one  of  the  most  benign  of  rulers, 
and  they  represent  him  as  a  close  personal  friend  of 
Judah  the  Patriarch,  as  a  great  admirer  of  Judaism, 
and  even  as  a  secret  convert. 

Only  a  few  disconnected  facts  are  known  about 
the  following  emperors.  Under  Marcus  Aurelius,  the 
philosophic  author  (161-180),  who,  in  one  instance 
speaks  with  contempt  of  the  Jews,  we  hear  of  a  slave, 
named  Callistus,  sentenced  to  penal  servitude  in  the 
mines  of  Sardinia  for  having  disturbed  the  services  of 
a  synagogue. 

Under  Septimius  Severus  (193-211),  we  learn  of 
the  participation  of  the  Jews  in  a  rebellion,  and  an 
edict,  passed  in  204,  declared  conversion  to  Christian- 
ity from  Judaism  a  crime.  It  was  evidently  intended 
to  check  the  rapid  progress  of  Christianity.  Alexander 
Severus  (222-235)  is  said  to  have  been  very  favorable 
to  the  Jews,  and  his  mother,  Mammaea,  who  was 
regent  during  the  first  years  of  his  reign,  is  said  to 
have  been  favorably  inclined  toward  the  Jewish  relig- 
ion. Alexander  had  a  statue  of  Abraham  in  his  room 
and  on  the  wall  was  inscribed  the  famous  saying  of 
Hillel,  "What  is  hateful  unto  thee,  do  not  unto  thy 
neighbor."      The   Jews    of    Rome   had    a    synagogue 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  27 

which  was  named  the  Synagogue  of  Severus  in  his 
honor;  he  presented  to  it  a  scroll  of  the  Torah  which 
had  been  brought  from  Jerusalem.  The  mobs  in 
Alexandria  and  Antioch,  ever  hostile  to  the  Jews, 
called  him  Archysynagogos,  "leader  of  the  Syna- 
gogue." 

The  spiritual  life  of  the  Jews,  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple,  received  its  strongest  impetus  from 
Johanan  ben  Zakkai,  in  Jabneh  (Jamnia),  whom  leg- 
end makes  a  disciple  of  Hillel  and  a  member  of  the 
Sanhedrin  in  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple.  Legend  further  says  that  he  succeeded 
in  escaping  from  Jerusalem  during  the  siege  at  a  time 
when  the  Zealots  in  the  city  would  not  allow  any  one 
to  leave  it,  and  that  he  came  to  Vespasian,  to  whom 
he  prophesied  his  elevation  to  the  throne  of  Rome, 
for  which,  out  of  gratitude,  the  latter  allowed  him  to 
open  a  school  and  establish  a  Sanhedrin  in  Jabneh. 
At  any  rate,  Jabneh  became  the  spiritual  centre  of 
Judaism  at  that  time.  Various  ordinances,  which 
Johanan  ben  Zakkai  issued,  show  his  desire  to  har- 
monize ancient  traditions  with  the  conditions  as  they 
developed  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple.  Thus, 
it  is  understood  that  he  ordered  the  Shofar  to  be 
blown  in  Jabneh,  even  if  New  Year  fell  on  a  Sabbath ; 
this  formerly  had  been  done  only  in  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem. 

His  successor  was  Gamaliel,  usually  called  Gama- 
liel n,  Gamaliel  the  elder,  or  Gamaliel  of  Jabneh 
(100-130).  Tradition  makes  him  the  great-grandson 
of  the  famous  Hillel,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the 
president  of  the  Sanhedrin  during  the  time  of  King 


28  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Herod  (Hillel,  Simeon,  Gamaliel,  Simeon,  Gamaliel). 
In  the  work  of  harmonizing  tradition  with  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  time,  Gamaliel  followed  in  the  footsteps 
of  Johanan  ben  Zakkai.  His  main  activities  consisted 
in  the  organization  of  public  worship.  To  him  is 
ascribed  the  introduction  of  the  daily  prayer  (Te- 
fillah),  the  eighteen  benedictions  (Shemoneh  Esreh), 
to  which  later  in  his  life  he  added  one  more,  con- 
taining a  petition  against  sectaries  (Minim).  He 
also  composed  the  grace  after  meals,  and  the  Pass- 
over Haggadah.  He  further  endeavored,  in  all  pos- 
sible ways,  to  strengthen  the  authority  of  the  Presi- 
dent or  Nasi  or  Ab  Beth  Din  of  the  Sanhedrin,  espe- 
cially by  claiming  for  himself  the  exclusive  right  to 
fix  the  calendar.  In  the  interpretation  of  the  law  he 
took  a  lenient  attitude,  insisting  more  on  the  spirit 
than  on  the  letter. 

Opponents  of  his  hierarchical  tendencies  were  Elie- 
zer  ben  Hyrkanos  and  Joshua  ben  Hananiah ;  Akiba 
occupied  an  undecided  position  between  the  two  par- 
ties. Eliezer,  who  seems  to  have  been  favorably 
inclined  toward  Christianity,  objected  to  a  fixed  ritual, 
but  otherwise  was  rigorous  in  his  interpretation  of 
the  law,  and  a  firm  believer  in  the  authority  of  tradi- 
tion. From  obscure  and  legendary  reports  we  learn 
that  he  was  excommunicated  by  Gamaliel,  his  brother- 
in-law,  Joshua  was  strongly  opposed  to  Christianity, 
and  to  the  hierarchical  tendencies  of  Gamaliel,  and 
his  harsh  treatment  by  the  latter  caused  opposition, 
with  the  result  that  Gamaliel  was  removed  from 
office  and  Eleazar  ben  Abariah  appointed  in  his  place. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  29 

But  later  on  a  reconciliation  took  place,  and  Gamaliel 
was  reinstated. 

Akiba,  the  disciple  of  Eliezer,  was  the  strictest 
opponent  of  Christianity,  and  especially  of  the  prin- 
ciple which  declares  that  the  law  is  merely  a  symbol, 
and  also  of  the  demand  that  the  Jews  give  up  their 
national  distinctiveness.  His  opposition  to  the  sym- 
bolic interpretation  of  the  law  led  him  into  its  literal 
interpretation,  based  on  the  view  that  every  word 
and  letter  of  the  Torah  must  be  explained  inde- 
pendently of  the  context.  He  was  also  a  zealous 
advocate  of  Israel's  national  independence,  and  so 
became  the  spiritual  leader  of  the  Bar  Kochba  re- 
bellion. When  he  said,  "Thou  shalt  love  thy  neigh- 
bor as  thyself ;  this  is  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  Torah,"  he  probably  gave  expression  to  his  na- 
tionalistic sentiments.  Evidently  in  order  to  accentuate 
the  universality  of  Judaism,  Simeon  ben  Azai,  Akiba's 
contemporary,  says  that  the  words,  "This  is  the  book 
of  the  generations  of  Adam,"  are  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  the  Torah.  Rabbi  Akiba's  principle  of  in- 
terpreting the  Torah  was  opposed  by  his  contemporary. 
Rabbi  Ishmael,  who  says  the  Torah  speaks  the  lan- 
guage of  men;  that  is,  every  text  must  be  explained 
by  its  context.  An  important  figure  of  that  time 
seems  to  have  been  Elisha  ben  Abuyah,  who  is  called 
Acher  the  Apostate.  The  stories  told  of  him  are 
legendary  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  impossible  to 
know  how  much,  if  any,  historical  fact  underlies 
them. 

The  uprising  of  Bar  Kochba  and  the  subsequent 
prohibition  of  the  study  of  the  law  interrupted,  for  a 


30  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

while,  the  development  of  reHgious  doctrine.  Soon, 
however,  after  the  succession  to  the  throne  of  An- 
toninus Pius,  in  136,  the  study  of  the  law  was  re- 
sumed. A  synod  of  prominent  rabbis,  who  were 
mostly  disciples  of  Akiba,  met  at  Usha,  and  passed 
several  resolutions,  mostly  in  regard  to  civil  law,  re- 
quired by  the  exigencies  of  the  time.  One  of  these 
provides  that  every  one  shall  give  one-fifth  of  his 
income  to  charity,  thus  diverting  the  two  tithes  for- 
merly devoted  to  the  sacrificial  needs,  the  Levites  or 
the  poor,  to  communal  requirements.  Another  resolu- 
tion declared  that  every  father  was  under  the  duty 
of  providing  for  his  son  until  the  latter  was  twelve 
years  old.  The  spiritual  leaders  of  this  age  were 
Rabbi  Meir,  Judah  bar  Ilai,  and  Jose  bar  Halafta, 
and  the  office  of  Nasi  was  given  to  Gamaliel's  son, 
Simeon  ben  Gamaliel  H  (140-170).  The  latter  was 
in  turn  succeeded  by  his  son,  Judah  Hanasi,  called 
Rabbi,  or  Rabbenu-Hakkadosh,  who,  according  to  a 
legend,  was  born  on  the  day  on  which  Rabbi  Akiba 
died  (135-216).  To  him  is  due  the  compilation  of 
the  Mishnah  or  compendium  of  the  Rabbinic  law. 

The  word  Mishnah  is  derived  from  Mishneh  Torah 
(repetition  of  the  law),  the  name  of  Deuteronomy. 
This  compilation  was  preceded  by  others  on  a  smaller 
scale  which  we  do  not  possess.  They  are  called,  after 
their  authors,  the  Mishnah  of  Rabbi  Akiba,  that  of 
Rabbi  Meir,  and  that  of  Rabbi  Nathan.  The  object 
of  the  code  compiled  by  Judah  Hanasi  was  to  collect 
the  whole  of  the  Rabbinic  law.  The  authorities 
quoted  in  the  Mishnah  are  called  Tannaim,  from  tana, 
which  is  the  Aramaic,  for  shanah,  the  latter  being  a 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  31 

word  derived  from  Mishnah.  The  Mishnah  was  not 
intended  to  be  a  code  of  the  law  but  a  compendium 
for  its  study.  It  was  soon,  however,  accepted  as  an 
infallible  book  of  laws,  and  believed  to  be  based  on 
early  tradition  dating  back  to  Moses  himself. 


CHAPTER  III 

ERA   or  THE   TALMUD    (200-600) 

The  constant  progress  made  by  Christianity  in  Pal- 
estine had  an  unfavorable  effect  on  the  condition  of 
the  Jewish  population  and  the  Jews  began  to  emigrate 
to  Babylonia  in  constantly  growing  numbers.  The 
latter  country  had,  in  the  meantime,  passed  from  the 
rule  of  the  Parthians  to  that  of  the  neo-Persians, 
or  Parsees  (225).  These  having  thrown  off  the  yoke 
of  foreign  invaders,  acted  like  others  under  similar 
conditions  and  introduced  a  government  marked  by 
religious  and  national  fanaticism,  from  which  the 
Jews  suffered  very  severely.  The  Parsees,  who  wor- 
shipped fire,  would  not  allow  the  Jews  to  have  any 
light  on  the  Sabbath  during  their  period  of  mourn- 
ing, which  comprised  the  shortest  winter  days,  and 
consequently  the  Hanukah  lights  were  also  forbidden. 
Another  prohibition,  which  the  Jews  especially  re- 
sented, was  directed  against  the  burial  of  the  dead, 
not  allowed  by  the  religion  of  the  Parsees. 

At  the  same  time,  the  Roman  Empire,  passing  more 
and  more  under  Christian  rule,  became  hostile  toward 
the  Jews.  Of  Diocletian  (284-305)  it  is  reported 
that,  while  he  tried  to  suppress  Christianity,  he  allowed 
the  Jews  freedom  of  worship.  Another  story  reported 
of  him,  to  the  effect  that  he  ordered  Judah  Hanasi 
to   appear  before   him   on   the   Sabbath,   wishing  to 

32 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  33 

punish  him  for  the  insult  he  had  sufifcred  from  Jewish 
boys,  while  a  swineherd,  is  evidently  legendary.  Con- 
stantine  (305-337),  who  removed  all  the  disabilities 
from  which  the  Christians  had  suffered,  and  accord- 
ing to  some  authors,  a  professing  Christian  him- 
self, issued  the  first  edict  which  discriminated  against 
the  Jews.  This  law  prohibited  the  circumcision  of  a 
slave,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  was  intended  to 
check  propaganda  for  Judaism. 

JuHan  the  Apostate  (361-363),  who  wished  to  sup- 
press Christianity  and  attempted  to  reintroduce  a  re- 
fined worship  of  the  old  gods,  is  said  to  have  at- 
tempted to  rebuild  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The 
church  historians  tell  us  that  an  earthquake  and  simi- 
lar accidents  made  this  impossible.  It  is,  however, 
not  unlikely  that  the  whole  report  was  merely  an 
invention  to  show  that  the  Temple  could  never  be 
rebuilt,  and  that  all  attempts  to  fight  Christianity  must 
be  vain. 

The  discrimination  against  the  Jews  became  stronger 
when  Theodosius  issued  the  edict  of  Ravenna  (380), 
which  made  the  profession  of  Christianity  a  require- 
ment for  all  who  held  ofifice  under  the  government. 
After  the  death  of  Theodosius  the  Roman  Empire 
was  divided  into  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  Empire. 
Palestine  and  the  majority  of  the  Jews  were  in  the 
Eastern  Empire,  with  its  capital  at  Constantinople; 
and  they  remained  subject  to  this  rule  until  the  Holy 
Land  was  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  634. 

The  legal  treatment  of  the  Jews,  in  both  divisions 
of  the  Empire,  was  hostile,  but  the  authorities  tried 
to  protect  their  lives  and  properties  against  the  con- 


34  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

stantly  increasing  attacks  of  the  mob.  Such  outbreaks 
occurred  especially  in  the  Greek  cities  of  the  Orient. 
Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  and  St.  Simeon,  the 
Stylite,  who  for  years  lived  on  a  pillar,  stirred  up 
the  religious  fanaticism  of  the  masses  by  setting  them 
against  the  Jews.  These  attacks  resulted  in  loss  of 
life  and  property,  and  when  the  emperors  issued 
orders  demanding  the  punishment  of  the  lawless  ele- 
ments, the  ecclesiastic  leaders  condemned  this  action 
as  the  evidence  of  partiality  toward  the  Jews.  Under 
Emperor  Justinian  (527-565)  we  hear  for  the  first 
time  of  an  interference  with  the  internal  religious 
life  of  the  Jews  by  the  secular  authorities.  An  edict 
of  this  Emperor  prohibited  the  reading  of  the  Deu- 
terosis  in  the  synagogue.  The  word  is  a  literal  trans- 
lation of  the  word  Mishnah,  but  as  the  Mishnah  could 
not  have  been  read  in  the  synagogue,  we  must  assume 
that  other  Rabbinic  works  or  the  Targum  are  meant. 
The  Byzantine  Empire  frequently  had  wars  with  its 
Persian  neighbor,  and  one  of  these  which  threatened 
to  be  very  critical  occurred  under  Emperor  Heraclius 
(622-628).  In  this,  the  Jews  at  first  sided  with  the 
Persians,  but  when  the  Emperor  on  his  way  to  the 
East  appeared  in  Palestine,  he  promised  them  an  am- 
nesty if  they  would  join  his  cause.  This  they  did. 
On  his  return  he  broke  his  pledge,  the  monks  assur- 
ing him  of  the  divine  pardon  for  this  breach  of  faith, 
and  punished  the  Jews  severely  for  their  defection. 

RELIGIOUS    HISTORY   OF   THE   ERA 

The  position  of  the  patriarch  remained  hereditary 
in  the  house  of  Judah  Hanasi,  until  the  ofHce  was 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  35 

abolished  by  the  decree  of  Emperor  Theodosius  H 
(about  420).  The  successors  of  Judah  Hanasi  were 
Gamaliel  HI,  Judah  H,  Gamaliel  IV,  Judah  III,  Hillel 
II,  Gamaliel  V,  Judah  IV,  and  Gamaliel  VI.  These 
patriarchs,  however,  were  not  prominent  as  scholars, 
and  while  they  were  nominally  the  religious  heads  of 
the  community,  the  prerogatives  of  the  president  of 
the  school  of  Tiberias  were  transferred  to  a  scholar  of 
prominence.  Thus  Judah  Hanasi  himself  appointed 
his  son  Gamaliel  as  his  successor  before  his  death,  but 
Rabbi  Hanina  was  named  as  president  of  the  school. 
It  is  probable  that  the  head  of  this  school  presided  also 
over  the  court  sessions,  so  that  he  was  the  Ab  Beth 
Din ;  the  Nasi,  who  formerly  exercised  these  preroga- 
tives, was  the  representative  of  the  Jewish  community 
only  through  the  dignity  of  his  office. 

Prominent  among  the  disciples  of  Hanina  were 
Johanan  bar  Nappaha,  Simeon  ben  Lakish,  and  Eleazar 
bar  Padath  (250-280).  Even  at  this  period  the  Mish- 
nah  was  already  considered  revealed  law,  which  the 
teachers  could  only  explain,  but  not  alter.  We  there- 
fore very  often  find  their  names  in  the  Talmud  at  the 
head  of  discussions  of  a  passage  in  the  Mishnah.  They 
introduced  the  period  of  the  Palestinian  Amoraim 
(interpreters  of  the  law),  as  the  scholars  following 
the  era  of  the  Mishnah  are  called  in  contradistinction 
to  the  teachers  of  the  Mishnah,  known  as  Tannaim 
(legislators).  To  the  school  of  Johanan  belong  all 
prominent  Palestinian  rabbis  of  the  succeeding  genera- 
tion. Prominent  among  them  is  Abbahu  of  Csesarea. 
He  is  known  not  merely  as  an  expounder  of  the  law 
but  as  a  controversialist  against  Christianity. 


36  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Tiberias  continued  to  be  the  center  of  Jewish  spirit- 
ual life,  and  quite  a  number  of  young  scholars  from 
Babylonia  came  there  to  finish  their  studies;  some  of 
them  remained  in  Palestine.  Of  the  teachers  of  the 
fourth  century,  little  more  than  their  names  is  known. 
Prominently  mentioned,  however,  is  Rabbi  Jose,  to 
whom  is  ascribed  the  final  redaction  of  the  Palestinian 
Talmud  (350).  At  about  this  time  Hillel  H  gave  up 
the  only  tangible  privilege  of  the  Nasi,  the  announce- 
ment of  the  calendar.  Instead  of  announcing  the  leap- 
year  whenever  it  was  necessary  to  postpone  the 
Passover,  fixed  rules  for  the  calendar  were  made.  By 
this  arrangement  it  became  unnecessary  to  keep  the 
second  holydays,  which  had  been  celebrated  in  those 
places  which  the  messengers  of  the  Nasi  could  not 
reach  in  time.  Hillel  ruled,  however,  that  this  practice 
had  become  hallowed  by  tradition,  and  that  even  hence- 
forth the  Jews  living  outside  of  Palestine  should 
continue  to  celebrate  two  holydays. 

When  finally  the  office  of  patriarch  was  abolished, 
Palestine  lost  its  place  as  the  spiritual  center  of 
Judaism.  The  study  of  the  law  declined,  and  from  the 
middle  of  the  fourth  century  we  find  in  Palestine 
studies  confined  tO'  homiletical  and  exegetical  works, 
due  in  part  to  the  controversies  with  the  Christians. 
Some  of  their  greatest  teachers,  such  as  Jerome,  the 
translator  of  the  Bible  into  Latin,  were  disciples  of 
Palestinian  rabbis.  Of  the  homiletical  explanations 
collections  were  made ;  these  are  called  Midrash.  The 
oldest  of  these  collections  is  the  Midrash  Rabba  to 
Genesis,  compiled  in  the  seventh  century. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  37 

BABYLONIA 

Although  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  Ezra  is  ahxady 
mentioned  as  an  expounder  of  the  law,  who  had  come 
from  Babylon,  although  Hillcl  is  said  to  have  arrived 
in  Palestine  also  from  Babylon  in  the  first  century 
B.C.  with  a  reputation  for  scholarship,  and  although 
Judah  Hanasi  is  quoted  as  having  said  that  the  only 
man  whose  superiority  he  acknowledged  was  Huna, 
the  Exilarch  of  Babylon,  we  find  no'  distinct  traces  of 
literary  activity  in  Babylon  until  the  third  century. 
At  that  time  two  men  were  prominent  as  scholars : 
Abba  Areka,  called  Rab,  and  Samuel.  Both  had  spent 
some  time  in  Palestine,  studying  under  Judah  Hanasi. 
Rab  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which  assisted 
Judah  Hanasi  in  the  compilation  of  the  Mishnah. 
Before  he  left  Palestine,  he  was  ordained  by  Judah 
Hanasi  somewhat  restrictedly,  because  it  was  a  rule 
that  the  full  prerogatives  of  the  members  of  the 
Sanhedrin  could  not  be  exercised  outside  of  the  Holy 
Land.  Probably  for  this  reason  Judah  Hanasi  refused 
to  confer  ordination  upon  Samuel.  Rab  taught  in 
Sura,  and  Samuel  in  Nehardea.  Both  these  places 
were  for  centuries  the  seats  of  prominent  schools. 

At  this  time,  Rab  was  considered  the  greatest 
authority  on  ritual  law,  while  Samuel  was  considered 
learned  in  civil  law.  Rab's  decisions  are  character- 
ized by  rigorous  interpretation  of  the  law,  especially 
as  to  Passover.  Samuel  accommodated  himself  more 
to  the  spirit  of  the  times.  From  him  we  have  the 
famous  decision  which  makes  the  civil  law  of  the 
country  binding  upon  the  Israelites  as  a  religious  obli- 


38  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

gation.  He  also  partly  abolished  those  laws  of  the 
Sabbatical  year  which  had  become  obsolete,  such  as 
the  cancellation  of  debts.  He  also  declared  that  the 
celebration  of  the  second  holy  days  was  unnecessary. 
He  further  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  Messianic 
prophecy  merely  meant  the  political  independence  of 
the  Jews,  and  not  a  change  in  the  condition  of 
humanity. 

To  the  next  generation  (250-300)  belong  Nahman 
bar  Jacob,  who  reformed  the  legal  procedure  by  intro- 
ducing an  oath  in  cases  where  formerly  no  oath  had 
been  necessary,  Huna,  Hisda,  Shesheth  and  Judah  bar 
Ezekiel,  the  last  of  whom  was  the  founder  of  the  new 
school  of  Pumbeditha,  subsequently  the  most  promi- 
nent of  all  Babylonian  schools  existing  until  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eleventh  century.  The  characteristics  of 
this  age  were  the  growth  of  dialecticism,  Pilpul,  and 
the  neglect  of  biblical  studies.  To  the  succeeding 
generation  belong  Rabba  bar  Nahmani  and  Rab 
Joseph.  The  latter  is  known  as  the  author  or  compiler 
of  the  Aramaic  translation  of  the  prophets  (Targum), 
more  a  paraphrase  than  a  translation. 

In  the  succeeding  generation  we  have  (350-380) 
Abaje  and  Raba,  whose  teachings  are  quoted  as  the 
most  pronounced  type  of  keen  dialecticism.  The  most 
important  of  Babylonian  Amoraim  is  Rab  Ashe 
(350-431)  who  compiled  the  commentaries  and  the 
discourses  on  the  Mishnah,  and  so  became,  with  his 
successor  Rabina  (died  499),  the  compilers  of  the 
Babylonian  Talmud.  The  successors  of  these  teachers 
are  called  Saboraim  (reasoners).  Of  their  chronology 
and  work  we  know  nothing  with  exactness  except  that 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  39 

they  lived  during  the  sixth  and  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventh  century.  They  arranged  the  subject-matter  of 
the  Talmud,  which  they  divided  into  chapters  and  to 
which  they  added  some  explanatory  remarks. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FROM  THE  RISE  OF  ISLAM  (622)  TO  THE  ERA  OF  THE 
CRUSADES  (1096) 

Jews  had  been  living  in  Arabia  long  before  the  time 
of  Mohammed,  perhaps  as  early  as  the  pre-Christian 
era.  Their  mode  of  life  was  like  that  of  the  Arabs. 
They  were  divided  into  tribes,  and  had  fortified  places 
to  which  they  retreated  in  case  of  feuds  with  their 
Arab  neighbors.  Like  the  Arabs  they  had  their  war- 
riors, who  were  at  the  same  time  poets.  A  famous 
man  from  the  time  preceding  Mohammed  is  Samuel 
ibn  Adijah.  He  is  known  among  the  Arabs  as  a  faith- 
ful friend,  because  when  an  Arab  chieftain,  one  of 
his  friends,  sought  refuge  in  his  fortress,  he  allowed 
his  son,  who  was  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  to  be 
killed  rather  than  deliver  the  fugitive  into  their  hands. 

Mohammed  had  frequent  intercourse  with  the  Jews, 
and  received  from  them  the  first  impetus  to  found  a 
new  religion  in  place  of  the  crude  worship  of  the  old 
Arabs.  He  laid  particular  stress  on  converting  the 
Jews  to  the  new  religion,  which  was  to  be  a  universal 
theocracy.  For  this  purpose  he  adopted  some  of  the 
Jewish  ideas,  customs,  and  modes  of  worship,  the 
strict  monotheistic  idea,  the  fast  of  Yom  Kippur  and 
the  turning  toward  Jerusalem  in  prayer.  The  Jews, 
however,  were  offended  at  his  sensuality,  and  ridiculed 
him  for  his  ignorance.     He  therefore  became  their 

40 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  41 

enemy,  and  after  the  capture  of  one  of  their  forts, 
killed  the  inhabitants  who  had  surrendered.  All  other 
Jews  were  expelled  from  Arabia,  which  was  to  be  a 
theocratically  governed  state,  where  only  the  religion 
of  Mohammed  would  be  tolerated. 

Under  Mohammed's  successors,  the  Caliphs,  Islam 
rapidly  spread  over  a  great  part  of  Asia  and  the  theo- 
cratic principle  could  no  longer  be  maintained.  Under 
Omar  (634-644),  who  conquered  Jerusalem  in  637,  a 
law  called  the  Covenant  of  Omar  governing  the  treat- 
ment of  non-Mohammedans  was  proclaimed.  By  this 
law  the  Jews  had  to  pay  a  poll-tax,  and  were  exempt 
from  military  service.  In  spite  of  certain  disabilities, 
they  enjoyed  a  relative  state  of  freedom,  and,  as  the 
literature  of  the  period  proves,  greeted  the  rise  of 
Islam  as  a  relief  from  the  oppression  they  had  suffered 
in  Christian  countries  and  in  Persia.  They  also 
looked  upon  Islam  as  the  first  step  toward  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  Messianic  kingdom.  The  improvement  of 
their  condition  was  especially  manifest  in  Spain,  which 
was  conquered  by  the  Mohammedans  in  711. 

GERMANIC  NATIONS 

Beginning  with  the  fourth  century,  various  Ger- 
manic tribes  settled  on  the  soil  of  the  old  Roman  Em- 
pire, and  began  to  establish  independent  kingdoms  in 
the  fifth  century  within  its  limits,  until  in  476  the  last 
Emperor,  who  was  a  ruler  in  name  only,  was  deposed. 
In  Italy,  where  Theodoric  had  founded  the  kingdom 
of  the  Ostrogoths  in  493,  the  Jews  were  fairly  treated, 
although  Theodoric,  a  fanatical  Christian,  considered 
the  Jews  an  undesirable  element.    He  would,  however, 


42  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

allow  no  injustice  to  be  done  them,  and  when  a  mob  in 
Ravenna  destroyed  a  synagogue  in  519,  he  ordered  the 
city  to  make  restitution;  for  this  he  was  severely  cen- 
sured by  Ambrosius,  the  Bishop  of  Milan.  The  Jews 
held  the  rule  of  the  Goths  to  be  preferable  to  that  of 
the  Byzantines,  and  in  the  war  between  these  two 
powers,  which  ended  with  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic 
kingdom  (555)  they  aided  the  former,  and  their 
bravery  in  defending  the  city  of  Naples  was  highly 
praised  by  Greek  historians. 

After  a  short  period  of  domination  by  the  Byzan- 
tines, the  Longobards,  another  German  tribe,  con- 
quered Italy  in  568.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  taken 
any  interest  in  the  Jews,  as  their  government  was 
restricted  to  members  of  their  own  nationality.  The 
Jews,  as  Roman  citizens,  were  under  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  government,  which,  as  the  Byzantines  could 
not  exercise  any  authority,  was  left  almost  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  the  highest  local 
dignitary.  From  the  records  of  this  period,  we  possess 
information  as  to  the  attitude  of  Pope  Gregory  I 
(590-604),  in  dealing  with  Jewish  affairs.  While 
naturally  not  in  sympathy  with  the  Jews,  he  insisted 
that  they  be  treated  fairly.  Thus,  he  ordered  that  a 
cross,  which  a  Jewish  convert  to  Christianity  had 
placed  in  a  synagogue  to  spite  the  Jews,  be  removed, 
and  when  a  synagogue  had  been  converted  into  a 
church,  he  ordered  an  indemnity  paid  to  its  former 
owners.  But  he  very  often  censured  the  Frankish 
kings  for  allowing  the  Jews  to  hold  public  offices  and 
to  keep  Christian  slaves. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  43 

FRAKCB 

The  Merovingian  kings  who  conquered  Ancient  Gaul 
in  496  were  the  first  of  the  Germanic  rulers  to  adopt 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  All  the  others  were 
Arians.  In  the  sixth  century  they  treated  the 
Jews  kindly;  we  hear  of  a  Jew  named  Priscus,  a 
favorite  of  King  Hilperic  (561-584),  whom  that  king 
loved  so  well  that  he  wished  him  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. On  one  occasion  Priscus  discussed  religious 
problems  very  freely  in  the  presence  of  the  King,  with 
Bishop  Gregory  of  Tours,  and  criticized  Christian 
dogmas  fearlessly.  In  spite  of  the  representations  of 
Pope  Gregory  I,  the  Prankish  kings  entrusted  the  Jews 
with  offices,  such  as  tax  collector,  and  allowed  them 
to  deal  in  Christian  slaves.  Church  councils,  how- 
ever, as  early  as  the  fifth  century,  legislated  against 
social  intercourse  between  Christians  and  Jews. 

SPAIN 

The  Visigoths,  who  ruled  over  Spain,  treated  the 
Jews  worse  than  any  other  nation  at  that  time.  All 
the  mediaeval  disabilities,  such  as  the  seclusion  of  the 
Jews  in  certain  quarters  and  the  restriction  of  their 
worship,  had  their  origin  in  that  country.  Frequently 
we  hear  of  a  law  prohibiting  the  holding  of  Christian 
slaves  by  Jews.  Repeatedly  Jews  were  converted  by 
force,  and  occasionally  whole  communities  expelled. 
Bishop  Isidore  of  Seville  (560-630)  wrote  a  book 
entitled  "Against  the  Jews,"  which  was  widely  read 
and  translated  into  different  languages.  His  example 
was  imitated  in  later  times.     In  the  Prankish  king- 


44  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

dom,  Agobard,  Archbishop  of  Lyons  (814-840),  wrote 
five  books  on  the  Jews,  the  titles  of  which  show  his 
animus :  "On  the  Insolence  of  the  Jews,"  "On  the 
Necessity  of  Guarding  Against  Having  Company  with 
Jews,"  etc.  He  opposed  the  law  which  prohibited  the 
baptism  of  heathenish  slaves  owned  by  Jews  and  agi- 
tated for  their  social  seclusion.  Similar  was  the  liter- 
ary activity  of  Amolo,  Archbishop  of  Lyons  (841- 
852),  who  wrote  a  book  against  the  Jews  and  dedi- 
cated it  to  Emperor  Charles  HI. 

Charlemagne  (768-814)  is  reported  to  have  called 
Kalonymus  of  Lucca  to  Mayence  as  chief  rabbi  of  all 
the  Jews  of  Germany;  but  this  report  is  legendary. 
Equally  unauthentic  are  laws  ascribed  to  Charlemagne, 
among  them  the  one  imposing  upon  the  Jews  an  igno- 
minious form  of  oath.  A  law  of  Charlemagne's  son 
Louis  (814-840),  required  the  markets  to  be  held  on 
Sundays  in  order  to  make  it  possible  for  the  Jews  to 
attend  them. 

The  Jews  in  those  days  were  chiefly  traders,  import- 
ers of  merchandise  from  foreign  lands,  and  slave 
dealers,  and  acted  as  the  pioneers  of  commerce  in  the 
countries  of  Western  and  Northern  Europe. 

LITEEARY    ACTIVITY    OF    THE    PERIOD 

The  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Jews  of 
Spain,  which  began  with  the  Arabic  conquest  of  that 
country  in  711,  made  itself  felt  in  their  literary 
activity.  Especially  was  this  the  case  in  the  Caliphate 
of  Cordova,  under  Abderrahman  (912-961).  At  his 
court,  Hasdai  ibn  Shaprut  rose  to  prominence,  and, 
like  the  Mohammedan  nobles  of  the  time,  gathered 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  45 

around  him  a  number  of  eminent  authors  and  scholars. 
Among  them  were  Menahem  ben  Saruk  and  Dunash 
ibn  Labrat,  who  first  laid  the  foundation  for  a  scien- 
tific Hebrew  grammar.  Their  disciples  were  Judah 
Hayug  and  Mervan  ibn  Ganah,  called  Marinus.  The 
center  of  Jewish  learning  still  remained  in  Babylonia, 
where,  after  the  conquest  of  the  Persians  by  the' 
Mohammedans,  a  revival  of  learning  took  place. 

The  two  principal  schools  were  those  of  Sura  and 
Pumbeditha,  and  at  the  head  of  each  was  a  president, 
Resh  Methibta.  The  one  at  Sura  was  the  higher  in 
rank,  and  was  called  Gaon  (excellency),  a  title  which 
later  was  transferred  to  the  president  of  the  school  in 
Pumbeditha.  The  function  of  the  Gaon  was  to  preside 
over  the  regular  course  of  studies,  Sidra,  and  the 
popular  extension  course  called  Kalla,  held  twice  a  year 
in  the  months  preceding  the  Passover  and  the  fall 
festivals.  He  further  rendered  decisions  in  important 
cases  submitted  to  him  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
A  number  of  collections  of  these  decisions  called 
Teshubot  (Responsa),  have  come  down  to  us.  They 
are  written  partly  in  Aramaic  and  partly  in  Arabic, 
according  to  the  language  in  which  the  question  was 
written. 

The  Gaon  licensed  rabbis,  or  judges,  as  they  were 
called,  because  their  chief  function  was  to  act  as  judges 
in  civil  cases.  These  licenses  were  endorsed  by  the 
Exilarch,  Resh  Galutha,  the  political  head  of  the  com- 
munities in  Babylonia,  representing  them  before  the 
government  and  appointing  the  Gaon.  The  former,  in 
turn,  was  appointed  by  the  Caliph,  and  his  office  was 
hereditary  as  a  rule.    The  oldest  literary  works  of  the 


46  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

period  are  collections  of  laws  regarding  matters  of 
frequent  occurrence,  such  as  liturgy,  mourning,  the 
reception  of  proselytes,  etc.  They  are  known  as  the 
"Small  Tractates,"  and  are  usually  found  in  the  ninth 
volume  of  our  editions  of  the  Talmud. 

Other  compendia  of  the  law  are  the  Halakot  Gedo- 
lot  by  Simeon  Kayara,  written  in  the  eighth  century, 
and  the  Sheeltot  of  Ahai  of  Shabha,  the  latter  arranged 
according  to  the  Pentateuch,  and  containing  some 
moral  lessons  besides  the  legal  exposition  of  the  text. 
The  compilation  of  these  works  was  opposed  by  the 
Geonim,  who  considered  them  injurious  to  the  study 
of  the  law  and  detrimental  to  their  own  authority. 

In  the  ninth  century  the  first  Talmudic  dictionary 
Arukh  was  written  by  Zemah  Gaon.  His  work  has  not 
come  down  to  us,  but  most  of  it  was  incorporated  in 
the  Talmudic  dictionary  of  the  same  name,  written  by 
Nathan  of  Rome  in  the  eleventh  century.  The  title 
has  also  been  retained  by  subsequent  compilers  of 
Talmudic  dictionaries,  including  the  Aruch  Comple- 
tum,  edited  by  Alexander  Kohut  (1878-1892).  At  the 
same  time  Amram  Gaon  compiled  the  first  liturgy, 
Seder  Rab  Amram,  and  thus  is  the  originator  of  our 
present  prayer-book.  The  form  in  which  this  com- 
pilation has  come  down  to  us  is  not  as  the  original 
left  the  hands  of  its  editor,  for  quite  a  number  of  later 
texts  are  found  in  it  and  its  order  of  services  is  not 
exactly  identical  with  any  of  the  rituals  in  use  at 
present.  Still,  it  is  the  groundwork  of  the  liturgy  of 
Judaism  to-day  all  over  the  world. 

From  the  same  period  dates,  probably,  the  first 
Kabbalistic  book  which  we  possess,  the  "Sefer  Yezi- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  47 

rah"  (Book  of  Creation).  It  may  be  called  a  theo- 
sophical  treatise,  written  in  the  language  and  form  of 
the  Mishnah,  and  based  on  the  philosophy  of  the 
Pythagorean  and  Alexandrian  schools.  Its  subject- 
matter  naturally  makes  it  obscure ;  from  the  tenth 
century  at  least  it  has  been  commented  upon.  Legend 
has  ascribed  its  authorship  to  Rabbi  Akiba,  and  even 
to  Biblical  persons  such  as  Abraham. 

In  the  ninth  century  we  meet  the  first  traces  of  a 
scientific  literature.  Prominent  here  is  Saadya  Gaon 
(892-942),  born  in  Fayum,  Egypt,  and  called  to  Sura 
as  Gaon,  quite  an  unusual  event.  His  literary  activity 
extends  over  the  whole  field  of  Jewish  literature.  He 
wrote  commentaries  on  the  Bible  besides  an  Arabic 
translation,  and  on  Talmudic  topics.  He  also  com- 
posed religious  hymns,  but  the  most  important  of  all 
his  works  is  his  Emunoth  Wedeoth  (Dogma  and 
Science),  the  first  attempt  at  a  scientific  apology  for 
Judaism  from  a  philosophical  point  of  view.  His  inde- 
pendence brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Exilarch 
David  ben  Zakkai,  to  whose  dictates  he  would  not 
submit  in  a  matter  which  he  regarded  as  unjust;  con- 
sequently he  was  deposed.  Saadya  contended  that  this 
act  was  illegal  and  excommunicated  the  Exilarch.  The 
latter  proved  stronger  and  Saadya  was  forced  into 
exile.  Later  on,  however,  they  became  reconciled,  and 
Saadya  was  reinstated  (934). 

The  last  two  Geonim  of  any  importance  lived  in 
Pumbeditha.  They  were  Sherira,  who  died  in  999, 
and  his  son.  Hay  Gaon,  who  died  in  1038.  From  the 
former  we  possess  a  very  important  historical  treatise 
on  the  development  of  Rabbinic  law  known  as  the 


48  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

epistle  of  Sherira  Gaon.  It  was  written  at  the  request 
of  a  man  in  Morocco,  and  was  inspired  by  apologetic 
motives  to  prove  that  the  law  had  been  handed  down 
unaltered  from  generation  to  generation.  From  Hay 
Gaon  we  have  various  Talmudic  works,  many  re- 
sponsa,  and  a  didactic  poem.  Their  contemporary  was 
Samuel  ibn  Hofni,  a  rationalistic  writer,  who  rejected 
the  belief  in  the  miracles  related  in  the  Talmud. 
Otherwise  the  age  of  the  Geonim  is  characterized  by 
a  blind  faith,  not  only  in  Bible  and  Talmud,  but  also 
in  popular  superstitions  and  in  the  preservation  of 
superstitious  customs.  Hay  was  succeeded  by  Heze- 
kiah,  who  after  holding  his  office  for  two  years  was 
put  to  death  by  the  Caliph  in  1040.  After  this  time 
the  office  lost  all  significance.  Names  of  a  few  of 
those  who  held  office  after  this  time  are  found,  but 
nothing  is  known  of  their  activity,  nor  has  any  literary 
work  of  this  age  come  down  to  us.  There  were  also 
Geonim  at  that  time  in  Palestine  of  whom,  however, 
we  know  little  more  than  their  names. 

The  blind  faith  which  characterized  the  period  of 
the  Geonim  aroused  considerable  opposition,  culminat- 
ing in  the  foundation  of  a  religious  sect  called  the 
Karaites,  B'ne  Mikra,  "Sons  of  the  Bible."  Their 
founder  was  Anan  ben  David  (760)  who  claimed  the 
Bible  as  the  only  authority  for  faith  and  practice,  and 
therefore  rejected  all  Rabbinic  law.  His  successors 
founded  a  congregation  in  Jerusalem,  and  very  soon 
spread  in  the  East.  The  most  prominent  teachers  of 
the  Karaites  are  Benjamin  of  Nehawend,  and  Salmon 
ben  Jeroham,  the  latter  of  whom  carried  on  a  literary 
controversy  with  Saadya.    Judah  Hadassi,  in  the  thir- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  49 

teenth  century  wrote  EsJikol  Hakofcr,  the  standard 
work  of  the  Karaite  law,  written  in  rhymed  prose. 
Other  important  Karaite  scholars  are  Aaron  ben 
Elijah,  who  died  in  1369,  the  author  of  Gan  Eden,  a 
compendium  of  the  religious  law,  and  Es  Hayyim,  a 
work  on  religious  philosophy. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  Elijah  Bashjazi  wrote  an- 
other compendium  of  the  Karaite  religion  entitled 
Aderet  EliyaJm.  By  this  period  a  large  Karaite  com- 
munity settled  in  Lithuania,  where  Isaac  of  Troki 
wrote  a  very  able  polemical  treatise  directed  against 
Christianity,  known  as  Hisuk  Emunah.  In  1698,  Jacob 
Trigland,  professor  at  Leyden,  made  inquiries  con- 
cerning the  Karaites  by  means  of  a  letter  addressed  to 
their  chief  sent  through  an  ambassador  to  Poland.  He 
received  a  reply,  Dod  Mordecai,  written  by  Mordecai 
ben  Nissim.  This  was,  for  a  long  time,  the  only  source 
of  information  on  the  history  of  the  Karaites.  The 
last  Karaite  author  of  any  consequence  was  Abraham 
Firkovitch  (1787-1874)  of  Russia,  who  discovered  and 
published  important  Karaite  documents.  Some  of 
these,  however,  he  forged  in  the  interest  of  the  Karaite 
claim  that  the  Karaites  represent  the  original  Judaism 
from  which  the  Rabbanites  seceded.  Lately  a  few 
insignificant  works  in  Hebrew  have  been  published  by 
some  Karaitic  writers  such  as  Samuel  Pampulov 
(1832-1912),  the  spiritual  head  of  the  leading  Karaitic 
congregation  of  Eupatoria  in  the  Crimea,  but  in  gen- 
eral the  Karaitic  communities,  most  of  which  are  found 
in  Russia,  while  one  is  in  Constantinople,  one  in  Cairo, 
Egypt,  and  one  in  Halicz,  Galicia,  are  in  a  state  of 
spiritual  decadence. 


50  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

At  the  same  time  that  the  Karaite  schism  occurred, 
the  Chazars,  a  Tartar  tribe,  were  converted  to  Judaism. 
Reports  of  the  existence  of  a  Jewish  kingdom  had 
reached  the  Jews  of  Western  Europe.  Hasdai  ibn 
Shaprut  wrote  a  letter  of  inquiry  on  this.  He  received 
a  reply  from  the  King  of  the  Chazars,  and  these  two 
letters  are  the  chief  source  of  information  concerning 
this  remarkable  event.  Toward  the  end  of  the  tenth 
century  the  kingdom  of  the  Chazars  was  conquered  by 
the  Russians.  Judah  Halevi,  who  wrote  his  Kuzari 
about  1140,  used  the  story  of  the  conversion  of  the 
Chazar  King  in  the  form  of  a  philosophic  dialogue 
between  him  and  the  rabbi  who  converted  him.  The 
knowledge  he  had  of  an  independent  Jewish  state  was 
the  basis  of  the  fanciful  reports  circulated  by  an 
adventurer  who  called  himself  Eldad  Hadani  and 
pretended  to  be  a  descendant  of  one  of  the  lost  ten 
tribes.  Their  habitation  and  modes  of  life  he  described 
in  a  book.  He  appeared  in  the  tenth  century  in 
Morocco,  but  nothing  is  known  as  to  what  finally 
became  of  him. 

In  the  ninth  century,  the  literature  of  religious 
hymns,  Piyut,  begins.  The  authors  of  these  are  called 
Payetanim  (poets).  Their  works  are  characterized  by 
arbitrary  handling  of  the  Hebrew  grammar,  by  the 
creation  of  new  words  in  an  arbitrary  style,  and  finally, 
by  obscure  allusions  to  the  Midrash.  The  oldest  of 
these  poets  are  Jose  ben  Jose  and  Jannai.  Their  suc- 
cessor, Eleazar  ben  Kallir,  is  the  most  prolific  of  all. 
Of  his  life  we  know  nothing  with  certainty. 

The  literary  activity  of  the  Jews  of  Europe  began  in 
the  ninth  century.     The  first  work  is  probably  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  51 

Josippon,  a  history  of  the  Jews  from  the  destruction 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  to  the  downfall  of  Jerusalem  in 
70,  which  was  ascribed  to  Josephus  Flavius.  Another 
anonymous  writer,  who  lived  in  Italy  in  the  ninth 
century,  is  the  author  of  the  Midrash,  called  Pirke 
Rabbi  Eliezer.  But  the  first  Jewish  author  who  lived 
in  Europe,  known  by  name,  is  Sabbatai  Donolo 
(913-982),  who  wrote  on  medicine,  astrology,  and 
Kabbala. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    JEWS    OF    EUROPE    (1040-1215) 

The  first  mention  of  Jews  in  Germany  is  found  in 
two  orders  of  Emperor  Constantine  (321),  in  which  he 
regulated  the  condition  of  the  Jews  of  Cologne.  It  is 
possible  that  this  settlement  was  of  a  temporary  char- 
acter, for  nothing  is  heard  of  the  Jews  in  Germany 
until  the  tenth  century.  A  statement  to  the  effect  that 
Charlemagne  called  Rabbi  Kalonymus  of  Lucca  in 
Italy  to  be  Chief  Rabbi  of  all  the  Jews  of  Germany  is 
first  reported  in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  is  in  all 
likelihood  legendary.  Under  Charlemagne  the  Jews 
appear  in  Germany  only  as  travelling  traders.  In  1016, 
however,  there  was  already  a  bloody  persecution  of 
the  Jews  in  Mayence.  Gershom  ben  Judah,  a  native  of 
Erance,  was  rabbi  in  Mayence.  He  occupied  so  promi- 
nent a  position  that  he  was  called  "Meor  Hagolah" 
(light  of  the  exile).  He  wrote  commentaries  on  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  Talmud,  responsa,  other  Tahnudic 
works,  and  liturgical  poetry.  He  died  in  1028.  To 
him  are  ascribed  various  rules,  among  them  a  prohibi- 
tion of  polygamy  and  an  injunction  to  respect  the 
secrecy  of  letters.  At  the  same  time  there  lived  in 
Mayence  Simeon  bar  Isaac,  the  liturgical  poet,  whose 
hymns  are  found  in  the  ritual  of  the  German  Jews  for 
the  second  day  of  Rosh  Hashanah. 

52. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  53 

In  1090  Emperor  Henry  IV  granted  charters  to  the 
Jews  of  Worms  and  Speyer.  These  are  the  oldest 
laws  regulating  the  status  of  the  Jews  in  Germany, 
granting  to  them  freedom  of  trade  and  travel,  pro- 
claiming the  inviolability  of  their  cemeteries,  and 
prohibiting  the  kidnapping  and  baptism  of  their  chil- 
dren. Six  years  later  the  first  crusade  broke  out,  and 
the  mobs  composing  the  army  of  the  crusaders  on  the 
Rhine  invaded  the  Jewish  settlements,  chiefly  Cologne, 
Mayence,  Speyer  and  Worms,  in  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try. Houses  were  sacked,  synagogues  desecrated,  and 
many  Jews  cruelly  murdered  ;  others  committed  suicide 
after  killing  their  own  children  in  order  to  save  them 
from  forced  conversions.  A  number  of  Jews  who  had 
been  converted  to  Christianity,  in  order  to  save  their 
lives,  later  on  returned  to  Judaism  in  spite  of  the 
ecclesiastic  law  which  put  this  under  the  penalty  of 
death.  The  Emperor,  who  at  that  time  was  in  Italy, 
sanctioned  this  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Pope. 

Another  persecution  broke  out  in  1146,  when  the 
second  crusade  began.  But  the  consequences  were 
not  as  serious  as  those  of  the  first  crusade.  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux  strongly  condemned  all  acts  of  violence 
toward  the  Jews,  who  found  refuge  in  the  castles  of 
the  lords,  and  the  Bishop  of  Speyer  opened  his  castle, 
the  Wolkenburg,  to  them,  protecting  them  from  the 
attacks  of  the  mob.  Still,  in  Wuerzburg,  quite  a  num- 
ber were  killed,  under  the  charge  of  having  murdered 
a  Christian.  This  may  be  considered  the  first  blood- 
accusation  on  the  European  continent,  although  no 
particular  motive  for  the  crime  was  given.  There  is, 
however,  a  case  on  record  in  England  in  1144,  where 


54  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

the  Jews  were  accused  of  having  murdered  a  boy, 
William  of  Norwich,  and  nailed  him  to  a  cross  in  order 
to  mock  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus. 

During  the  course  of  the  twelfth  century,  local  out- 
breaks of  mob  violence  occurred  everywhere  in  Europe, 
notably  at  Blois,  France,  in  1171,  where  thirty-four 
Jews  were  burned  at  the  stake.  In  1189,  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  coronation  of  King  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion, 
a  bloody  persecution  took  place  in  London,  and  soon 
spread  over  the  other  cities  of  the  kingdom.  Notable 
is  the  case  of  Benedict  of  York,  who,  in  order  to  save 
his  life,  turned  to  Christianity  and  returned  to  Judaism 
on  the  next  day.  Both  King  Richard  and  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  permitted  this,  although  it  was 
against  the  canonical  law. 

The  climax  of  the  ill-treatment  of  the  Jews  was 
reached  in  1215,  when  the  Lateran  Council,  presided 
over  by  Pope  Innocent  III,  passed  various  laws  repeat- 
ing the  usual  prohibition  against  office-holding  by 
Jews,  and  decreeing  that  they  should  wear  a  distinct 
mark  on  their  outer  garments.  This  is  the  origin  of 
the  Yellow  Badge,  which  in  some  countries  continued 
to  be  in  force  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  Pope  stated  that  the  Jews  should  be  like  Cain, 
singled  out  for  their  wickedness,  and  that  their  treat- 
ment should  be  an  object  lesson  to  Christians. 

SPIRITUAL   LIFE    OF   THE    PEEIOD 

The  spiritual  life  of  the  Jews  reached  its  highest 
development  in  Spain,  where  the  contact  with  the 
cultured  Arabs,  whose  language  the  Jews  spoke,  made 
the  works  of  the  ancient  Greek  philosophers  and  scien- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  55 

tists  accessible  to  them.  In  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century  Bahya  ibn  Pakuda,  a  philosopher,  wrote  "The 
Duties  of  the  Heart,"  perhaps  the  most  popular  work 
of  this  literature.  His  ideal  of  life  is  asceticism. 
His  contemporary,  Solomon  ibn  Gabirol  (born  1022), 
wrote  a  philosophical  book,  "The  Fountain  of  Life," 
which,  however,  is  only  extant  in  a  Latin  translation. 
He  also  wrote  an  ethical  treatise,  "The  Choicest  of 
Pearls,"  and  some  Hebrew  poetry.  His  poems,  of 
which  quite  a  number  have  found  place  in  the  liturgy, 
are  among  the  best  works  of  their  class.  Of  his 
secular  poems  in  Hebrew,  a  wine  song  is  the  most 
famous.  He  is  quoted  under  the  name  of  Avicebron 
by  the  Christian  scholastic  authors  of  that  time  and 
his  views  had  a  great  influence  on  those  of  mediaeval 
Christian  philosophy  as  presented  in  the  works  of 
Duns  Scotus,  Albertus  Magnus  and  Thomas  of  Aquino. 
About  the  same  time  Samuel  Hanagid  was  secre- 
tary to  the  King  of  Granada.  He  was  not  only  a 
patron  of  Jewish  learning  but  also  an  author  of  con- 
siderable note.  He  wrote  an  introduction  to  the 
Talmud,  and  various  works  which  are  sequels  to 
Biblical  books,  such  as  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  Ecclesi- 
astes.  His  son,  Joseph,  succeeded  him,  and  was  killed 
in  a  riot  in  1060. 

The  greatest  Hebrew  poet  of  mediaeval  times  is 
Judah  Halevi  (born  about  1080,  died  1141).  Of  his 
numerous  poems,  some  are  of  a  religious,  others  of  a 
secular  character.  Of  the  latter  the  best  known  is  a 
description  of  a  sea  voyage ;  of  the  former,  the  Ode  to 
Zion,  embodied  in  the  ritual  for  the  ninth  of  Ab  and 
translated  into  various  modern  languages.     He  also 


56  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

wrote  an  apology  for  Judaism,  called  Kuzari,  previ- 
ously mentioned,  which  presents  its  doctrines  in  the 
form  of  dialogues  between  the  King  of  the  Chazars 
and  the  rabbi  who  converted  him.  The  main  principle 
of  his  philosophy  is  the  doctrine  of  Israel's  selection 
as  a  model  people  and  the  argument  for  the  truth  of 
Israel's  religion  is  its  history.  In  1140  he  went  to 
Palestine  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days  there. 
He  seems  to  have  died  before  he  reached  his  goal.  A 
younger  contemporary  is  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (1092- 
1167).  He  was  born  in  Spain,  and  travelled  through 
a  great  part  of  Europe  and  the  Orient.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works,  comprising  the  fields  of  poetry,  Hebrew 
grammar,  astrology,  and  other  subjects,  the  most  note- 
worthy is  his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  which 
makes  him  rank  as  the  first  Biblical  critic.  He  proved 
by  his  strong  critical  arguments  that  the  Pentateuch 
as  we  possess  it  does  not  come  from  Moses  but  was 
partly  the  product  of  later  times.  His  contemporary 
is  Moses  ibn  Ezra,  a  very  prolific  Hebrew  poet,  whose 
poems,  however,  suffer  from  an  excessive  play  on 
words.  It  is  not  known  whether  the  two  Ibn  Ezras 
were  relatives. 

The  most  illustrious  author  of  mediaeval  times  is 
Moses  ben  Maimon  (Maimonides,  born  at  Cordova, 
1135;  died  at  Cairo,  1204).  His  first  work  was  a 
commentary  on  the  Mishnah,  written  in  Arabic,  and 
translated  into  Hebrew  by  Samuel  ibn  Tibbon.  This 
work  was  a  preparation  for  the  greatest  work  of  his 
life,  the  "Mishneh  Torah,"  in  which  he  presents  the 
whole  doctrine  and  law  of  Judaism.  It  is  written  in 
clear  Hebrew,   and,  while  in  the  law   following  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  57 

Rabbinic  sources,  it  shows  here  and  there,  especially 
in  the  dogmatic  part,  the  author's  object  to  harmonize 
Judaism  with  philosophical  thought.  He  is  the  author 
of  a  philosophic  work,  "The  Guide  of  the  Perplexed," 
written  in  Arabic  and  known  by  its  Hebrew  title, 
Moreh  Nebukim.  His  object  of  harmonizing  religion 
with  philosophy  is  made  manifest  in  the  first  part  of 
this  work  by  his  attempt  to  explain  the  anthropomor- 
phic passages  of  the  Bible.  He  also  explains  prophecy 
as  a  divine  gift  and  tries  to  present  reasons  for  the 
divine  laws,  showing  that  they  are  intended  for  the 
instruction  and  the  material  and  moral  elevation  of 
mankind.  The  book  was  translated  into  Hebrew  by 
Samuel  ibn  Tibbon  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  by 
Judah  Alcharizi  in  the  thirteenth.  It  was  at  an  early 
date  translated  into  Latin,  and  in  recent  times  into 
various  modern  languages.  Maimonides  in  addition 
wrote  quite  a  number  of  works  on  scientific  subjects, 
notably  on  medicine,  and  various  Rabbinic  works. 
He  was  physician  in  ordinary  to  the  Sultan. 

Of  the  Talmudists  of  this  period,  the  greatest  is 
Solomon  ben  Isaac  (Rashi)  of  Troyes  (1040-1105). 
He  wrote  a  commentary  on  almost  the  whole  Baby- 
lonian Talmud  printed  in  all  Talmuds,  and  a  standard 
work  to-day.  He  is  the  author  of  commentaries  on 
most  of  the  Biblical  books.  His  commentary  on  the 
Pentateuch  contains  in  clear  and  concise  language  the 
Rabbinic  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  well- 
chosen  homiletical  interpretations  from  the  Midrash, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  popular  works  in  the  Rabbinic 
literature.  It  has  been  printed  with  the  text  of  the 
Pentateuch  innumerable  times,  and  is  a  very  popular 


58  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

text-book  in  Jewish  study  circles  all  over  the  world. 
Rashi  wrote  other  Rabbinic  works  and  religious 
hymns.  The  most  prominent  Rabbinic  author  of  this 
period  in  Spain  was  Isaac  Alfasi  (born  in  Fez,  1013 ; 
died  in  Spain,  1103),  He  wrote  an  abridged  Talmud, 
omitting  all  discussions  of  matters  not  of  legal  inter- 
est and  all  the  laws  not  in  force  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Temple.  By  this  method  he  facilitated  the  ren- 
dering of  legal  decisions.  In  Italy  there  lived  at  this 
time  Nathan  ben  Jehiel  of  Rome,  who  wrote  a  Talmud 
dictionary  "Aruk,"  using  the  work  of  the  same  title 
by  Zemach  Gaon. 

Rashi's  grandsons,  Samuel,  Isaac  and  Jacob  ben 
Meir,  were  also  prominent  Talmudic  authors.  Samuel 
ben  Meir  (Rashbam)  wrote  several  Talmudic  treatises, 
supplements  to  his  grandfather's  commentaries,  and  a 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  somewhat  more  free 
from  the  blind,  unrestricted  submission  to  Rabbinic 
authority  which  characterizes  his  grandfather's  work. 
The  greatest  Talmudist  among  the  brothers  was  Jacob 
ben  Meir  (Rabbenu  Tam,  died  1171),  whose  chief 
work  is  "Sefer  Hayashar,"  in  which  he  proclaims  the 
principle  that  the  contradictions  in  the  Talmud  must 
be  harmonized.  These  men  are  the  founders  of  a 
school  of  authors  known  as  Tosafists,  from  "Tosafot" 
(Additions),  glosses  to  Rashi's  Talmud  commentary, 
who  flourished  in  France  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries.  These  glosses  are  printed  in  most 
of  our  editions  of  the  Talmud.  Through  the  activi- 
ties of  these  men  the  French  province  of  Champagne 
and  Western  Germany  became  the  chief  seats  of  Rab- 
binic studies. 


CHAPTER  VI 

PEEIOD    OF   OPPRESSION    (1215-1492) 

During  the  thirteenth  century  the  persecutions  of 
the  Jews  continued,  although  they  are  of  a  more  spo- 
radic character  than  those  of  the  time  of  the  crusades. 
In  1235  a  number  of  Jews  were  killed  in  Fulda  on  the 
charge  of  ritual  murder.  This  is  the  first  distinct  case 
of  the  charge  that  the  Jews  used  the  blood  of  Chris- 
tians for  ritualistic  or  superstitious  purposes  which 
was  frequently  repeated  in  France  and  various  places 
in  Germany,  although  Emperor  Frederick  II  (1236) 
and  Pope  Innocent  IV  (1247)  defended  the  Jews 
against  this  accusation. 

An  important  change  in  the  political  condition  of 
the  Jews  resulted  from  the  law  of  Frederick  the  Belli- 
gerent of  Austria  (1244).  In  this  law  the  territorial 
ruler  for  the  first  time  proclaimed  his  right  to  legislate 
for  the  Jews,  heretofore  considered  the  exclusive  privi- 
lege of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  as  overlord  of  all  the 
Jews.  This  law  deals  largely  with  the  regulation  of 
money-lending.  It  permits  a  very  high  rate  of  interest, 
and  allows  the  Jews  to  be  tried  in  accordance  with  their 
own  laws.  It  prohibits  all  violence  toward  the  persons 
and  properties  of  the  Jews,  their  synagogues  and  ceme- 
teries, and  forbids  the  forcible  baptism  of  Jewish  chil- 
dren.   It  became  the  prototype  for  all  similar  mediaeval 

59 


60  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

legislation,  and  was  repeated  almost  verbatim  in  sub- 
sequent laws  issued  by  the  kings  of  Bohemia,  Hungary, 
the  Dukes  of  Saxony  and  Silesia,  and  the  kings  of 
Poland  during  the  thirteenth  century. 

In  England,  the  Jews  were  constantly  being  black- 
mailed by  King  John  (1199-1216)  and  by  King  Henry 
III  (1216-1272).  The  most  notable  and  typical 
instance  of  the  extortion  of  money  from  the  Jews  is 
that  reported  of  King  John,  who  imprisoned  a  Jew  and 
ordered  that  one  of  his  teeth  should  be  drawn  every 
day  until  he  agreed  to  pay  the  sum  demanded  of  him. 
The  heavy  taxes  laid  upon  the  Jews  forced  them  to 
charge  higher  rates  of  interest,  thus  embittering  the 
people  against  them,  and  making  them  so  miserable 
that  they  asked  to  be  permitted  to  emigrate.  Finally 
Edward  I,  in  1290,  ordered  the  expulsion  of  all  the 
Jews  from  England.  They  were  permitted  to  take 
their  property  with  them,  and  a  sea  captain,  who  put 
the  Jewish  exiles  aboard  his  vessel  on  a  sand  bar  where 
they  were  drowned  by  the  high  tide,  was  put  to  death. 

In  France  the  vassals  possessed  power  independent 
of  the  crown.  There  the  Jews  were  expelled  from  the 
territory  of  the  king  and  recalled  several  times  during 
the  fourteenth  century.  At  each  expulsion  they  were 
robbed,  so  that  an  assembly  of  Jewish  notables  pro- 
posed to  declare  it  unlawful,  under  penalty  of  excom- 
munication, for  any  Jew  to  settle  in  territory  from 
which  the  Jews  ha'd  been  previously  expelled.  Judah 
Hechasid,  author  of  a  book  on  religious  ethics,  how- 
ever, condemned  this  resolution  because  it  would  not  be 
effective  and  merely  cause  the  Jews  to  transgress  the 
law. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  61 

A  very  serious  persecution  broke  out  in  Franconia, 
in  1298,  the  Jews  being  accused  of  desecrating  the  host 
in  Roettingen.  This  is  the  first  case  of  this  kind, 
often  repeated  up  to  the  sixteenth  century.  The  leader 
of  the  mob  was  a  man  named  Rindfleisch.  Another 
bloody  persecution  broke  out  in  Alsace,  in  13,36,  under 
the  leadership  of  an  innkeeper,  John  Armleder,  so 
called  because  he  fastened  to  his  arm  a  patch  of 
leather  which  was  imitated  by  all  his  followers.  These 
riots  were  finally  suppressed  after  having  brought 
great  misery  upon  the  Jews,  but  the  evil-doers  were 
not  punished. 

The  most  serious  persecutions  broke  out  in  1348- 
1349,  during  the  so-called  Black  Plague  which  spread 
all  over  Europe.  As  a  reason  for  these  attacks  the 
rumor  was  circulated  that  the  Jews  had  poisoned  the 
wells  or  had  smeared  some  poisonous  salve  on  the 
doors.  In  many  cases  the  Jews  were  killed  and  their 
houses  sacked.  The  protection  of  the  Emperor  availed 
them  nothing;  even  if  the  Emperor  threatened  a  city 
with  punishment  for  breach  of  the  peace,  the  affair 
was  usually  compromised  by  allowing  the  city  to  retain 
part  of  the  plunder  taken  from  the  Jews,  the  Emperor 
taking  the  rest.  The  Flagellants,  who  appeared  at 
about  this  time,  by  their  religious  fanaticism  also  stim- 
ulated the  hatred  against  the  Jews. 

Other  annoyances  were  frequent.  On  the  basis  of 
the  view  that  the  Jews  were  chattels  of  the  king,  vari- 
ous rulers  occasionally  declared  void  the  bonds  held  by 
the  Jews.  The  most  typical  instance  is  that  of  Wenzel, 
King  of  Bohemia  and  German  Emperor,  who  in  1385 


62  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

annulled  all  the  bonds  held  by  Jews  and  accepted  from 
the  debtors  a  fraction  of  their  debts  in  settlement. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  frequent  expulsions 
took  place.  The  cities,  originally  small  settlements 
where  the  Jews  were  the  merchants  and  bankers,  had 
grown  in  size  and  importance,  and  the  citizens  were 
jealous  of  their  successful  Jewish  competitors.  Such 
expulsions  were  often  ordered  under  the  excitement 
aroused  by  some  false  accusation.  Thus,  in  1421,  the 
Jews  of  Vienna  were  accused  of  having  desecrated 
the  host,  and  a  number  of  them  were  publicly  burned 
at  the  stake,  all  the  others  being  expelled  from  the 
city  and  the  entire  province.  Such  expulsions  took 
place  in  1426  at  Cologne,  the  oldest  Jewish  settlement 
in  Germany,  in  1440  at  Wittenberg,  in  1475  at  Bam- 
berg, in  1496  from  the  province  of  Styria,  in  1498  from 
Salzburg,  in  1510  from  Naples,  in  1519  from  Ratisbon 
and  Rothenburg  and  in  1539  from  Saxony. 

The  religious  troubles  of  this  period  contributed  to 
turn  the  people  against  the  Jews.  The  Hussites  were 
then  a  great  menace  to  the  Church,  and  John  Capis- 
trano,  an  Italian  monk,  preached  against  them  in 
various  places  in  the  kingdom  of  Bohemia.  Every- 
where he  set  the  mob  against  the  Jews,  and  occasion- 
ally as  at  Breslau  in  1453,  he  tried  them  on  the  charge 
of  ritual  murder.  A  number  of  Jews  were  burned  at 
the  stake,  and  many  others  expelled.  From  other 
cities  of  that  kingdom,  as  Bruenn  and  Olmuetz,  !!■ 
Jews  were  expelled. 

Another  Catholic  revivalist,  Bernardin  of  Feltre, 
appeared  in  Trent,  where  he  arranged  a  ritual  murder 
trial.     The  body  of  a  boy  named  Simon  was  found, 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  63 

and  the  Jews  were  accused  of  having  murdered  him 
(1475).  Again  a  number  of  Jews  were  cruelly  put  to 
death  and  the  remainder  expelled  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  Doge  of  Venice  exonerated  them  from  the 
charge,  and  that  the  Pope  declared  the  accusation  to 
be  baseless.  Simon  was  considered  a  martyr  and  later 
on  made  a  saint.  A  similar  charge  was  brought  against 
the  Jews  of  Ratisbon,  but  they  succeeded  in  proving 
their  innocence.  The  expulsions  continued.  In  1499 
the  Jews  were  expelled  from  Nuremberg  and  Ulm,  in 
1493  from  Magdeburg,  in  1496  from  the  province  of 
Styria,  and  somewhat  later  from  Ratisbon  and  Saxony. 
The  exiles  sought  refuge  in  villages  and  little  towns 
under  the  rule  of  the  nobles,  or  emigrated  to  Poland, 
where,  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  there 
was  already  a  considerable  Jewish  settlement.  This 
soon  became  in  numbers  the  most  important  in  Europe. 

FBANCE 

Under  Louis  IX  (1226-1270),  a  religious  fanatic, 
the  Jews  were  treated  badly.  In  1236  a  mob  of 
crusaders  attacked  them,  and  wrought  great  suffering 
among  them.  In  1240  Nicholas  Donin,  a  converted 
Jew,  brought  charges  against  the  Talmud  as  contain- 
ing statements  which  were  blasphemous  to  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Consequently  all  copies  that  could  be 
found  were  seized  and  in  cart-loads  were  publicly 
burnt  at  Paris  in  1244.  In  1254  the  King  decreed  the 
expulsion  of  all  the  Jews  from  France,  but  the  decree 
was  repealed  under  Philip  IV  (1288-1314).  He  also 
ordered  occasionally  an  expulsion.  One  of  these  took 
place  in  1306.     A  number  of  the  exiles  went  at  that 


64  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

time  to  Palestine,  among  them  Estori  Farhi,  the  first 
Jewish  author  on  Palestinian  archaeology.  All  the  Jews 
found  in  the  kingdom  were  imprisoned  and  their  prop- 
erty confiscated  under  Philip's  successor,  Louis  X. 

They  were  recalled  in  1315,  but  under  Philip  V 
suffered  greatly  from  a  fanatical  mob,  known  as  Shep- 
herd Crusaders.  After  many  vicissitudes  their  final 
expulsion  was  decreed  in  1394.  Only  in  the  south  of 
France,  where  the  feudal  barons  still  had  sovereign 
rights,  and  in  the  Papal  possessions  at  Carpentras  and 
Avignon,  a  few  isolated  Jewish  communities,  with  a 
ritual  of  their  own,  remained.  Most  of  the  Jews  exiled 
from  France  went  to  the  adjoining  German  territories 
of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and  when  these  territories 
were  annexed  to  France  in  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  the  Jews  were  permitted  to  remain 
there.  But  they  were  not  allowed  to  settle  in  France 
proper  until  1791. 

SPAIN 

The  Christian  kingdoms  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Middle  Ages  continually  expanded,  so  that  the  Moors 
were  restricted  to  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula. 
The  growing  religious  fanaticism  of  the  Christians 
affected  the  condition  of  the  Jews  unfavorably,  but 
individuals  rose  to  prominence  as  financiers  or  physi- 
cians. James  VIII  of  Aragon  ordered  a  public  dispu- 
tation between  Jews  and  Christians  held  at  Barcelona 
in  1263.  The  Jewish  side  was  defended  by  Moses 
ben  Nahman,  and,  although  he  had  been  assured  per- 
fect freedom  of  speech,  the  Christians  took  such 
offence  at  his  remarks  that  they  demanded  his  execu- 
tion.   The  King  sent  him  instead  into  exile.    He  went 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  65 

to  Palestine,  where  he  died.  Alphonso  X  (1254- 
1284),  of  Castile,  employed  Don  Isaac,  a  Jew,  as  his 
astronomer.  Alphonso's  constitution,  regulating  the 
condition  of  the  Jews,  is  rather  severe.  They  were 
restricted  in  their  commercial  activity  and  compelled 
to  wear  yellow  badges. 

In  a  civil  war  between  Peter  the  Cruel  (1350-1369) 
and  Henry  II  (1369-1379)  the  Jews  sided  with  the 
former,  and  although  Henry  was  victorious  he  treated 
them  with  moderation.  In  1391  Ferdinand  Martinez 
began  to  preach  violent  sermons  against  the  Jews  in 
Toledo,  the  largest  Jewish  community  of  Spain.  His 
example  was  followed  in  many  other  places,  and  in 
consequence  of  these  incendiary  speeches,  riots  broke 
out  all  over  Christian  Spain.  A  great  many  Jews 
were  killed  or  forcibly  converted  to  Christianity. 
Many  of  the  latter  fled  as  soon  as  they  were  able  to 
do  so  to  Mohammedan  countries  in  order  to  be  able  to 
practice  the  Jewish  religion  openly.  They  were  called 
Marranos,  probably  from  the  Hebrew  muhram  (ex- 
communicated) or  from  a  Spanish  word  which  means 
swine.  The  Jews  called  them  Anusim  (compelled  to 
profess  the  Christian  religion). 

In  1413-1414  another  public  disputation  between 
Jews  and  Christians  was  arranged  by  Pope  Benedict 
XIII,  one  of  the  three  who  claimed  the  Papal  throne 
at  that  time.  It  took  place  in  Tortosa,  Aragon.  The 
idea  had  been  suggested  to  the  Pope  by  Solomon 
Halevi,  a  converted  Jew  who  called  himself  Paul  and 
later  on  became  Bishop  of  Burgos.  He  was  an  influ- 
ential friend  of  the  King  of  Castile.  Another  convert, 
a  Jewish  scholar  like  Paul,  had  written  a  satire  against 


66  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Paul  and  his  conversion.  This  was  Joshua  Allorqui, 
who  as  a  Christian  took  the  name  of  Geronimo  de 
Santa  Fe,  and  was  derisively  called  by  the  Jews  "Me- 
gaddef"  (blasphemer),  the  Hebrew  initials  of  Maestro 
Geronimo  de  (Santa)  Fe.  As  a  Christian  he  wrote  a 
polemical  work  in  Latin  against  Judaism  entitled : 
"Treatise  against  the  false  religion  of  the  Jews  and 
against  the  Talmud." 

Among  those  who  took  up  the  cudgels  for  the  Jews 
at  Tortosa  was  Joseph  Albo,  author  of  the  philosophic 
work  "Ikkarim."  The  many  converts  whom  the 
Church  forced  to  remain  in  her  fold  while  they  were 
Jews  at  heart  and  secretly  practiced  Judaism,  provoked 
the  ecclesiastic  authorities.  For  their  sake  a  special 
court  of  inquiry,  called  the  "Inquisition,"  was  created 
in  1480.  This  may  be  defined  as  a  court-martial  to 
try  cases  of  heresy.  It  proceeded  with  the  utmost 
severity  and  with  absolute  disregard  of  the  most  ele- 
mentary forms  of  court  procedure.  From  time  to 
time  it  arranged  public  executions,  at  which  those  con- 
victed of  heresy  were  burned  at  the  stake,  often  after 
having  undergone  terrible  tortures.  Such  an  execu- 
tion was  called  an  auto-da-fe. 

In  1483  Thomas  Torquemada  was  appointed  Grand 
Inquisitor,  and  he  was  assisted  by  the  blind  monk, 
Peter  Arbues.  During  the  time  of  the  existence  of 
the  Inquisition  (1480-1808),  31,712  were  burned  at 
the  stake  and  hundreds  of  thousands  were  punished 
with  imprisonment,  confiscation  of  property,  or  were 
publicly  disgraced.  One  of  the  latter  kinds  of  punish- 
ment was  the  sentence  compelling  the  victim  to  wear  a 
hideous    penitential    gown,    the    San    Benito.      Peter 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  67 

Arbues  was  assassinated  by  Marranos,  and  Pope  Pius 
IX  declared  him  a  saint  in  1868.  The  victims  of  the 
Inquisition  were  mostly  converted  Jews,  although 
ihere  were  also  Moors  and  native  Christians  among 
them.  In  spite  of  the  terrors  of  the  Inquisition,  the 
Jews  assisted  the  Marranos  in  the  observance  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  and  this  was  the  cause  of  the  edict 
of  expulsion  promulgated  by  Ferdinand,  King  of 
Castile,  and  his  wife  Isabella,  Queen  of  Aragon,  on 
March  30,  1492,  soon  after  the  capture  of  Granada,  the 
last  Moorish  stronghold  in  Spain. 

Most  of  the  exiled  fled  to  Portugal,  where  they 
found  a  temporary  home.  But  when  Manuel,  King  of 
Portugal,  married  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  it  was  stipulated  in  the  marriage  contract  that 
the  Jews  should  be  expelled  from  that  country  also. 
This  expulsion  took  place  in  1498.  Most  of  the  exiles 
went  to  Turkey,  where  they  were  kindly  received. 
Others  went  to  the  Barbary  States  in  Northern  Africa, 
and  especially  to  Morocco.  A  number  went  to  Italy 
and  settled  in  the  various  cities,  even  in  the  Papal 
possessions.  Still  there  were  a  great  many  Marranos 
left  in  Spain,  and  while  they  were  compelled  to  pro- 
fess and  practice  the  Catholic  religion,  they  remained 
Jews  for  many  generations.  Hence  up  to  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  there  were  always  autos-da-fe 
held  at  which  Jews  were  publicly  burned.  From  time 
to  time  the  wealthy  Marranos  would  escape  and  seek 
refuge  in  countries  where  they  were  permitted  to  pub- 
licly practice  their  religion.  The  expulsion  was  not 
repealed  until  the  constitution  of  July  2,  1876,  pro- 
claimed freedom  of  conscience.     This,  however,  did 


68  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

not  include  freedom  of  public  worship,  which  was 
granted  by  a  law  issued  June  11,  1910.  Since  that  time 
two  Jewish  congregations  have  been  organized  in 
Seville  (1914)  and  Madrid  (1917).  The  University 
of  Madrid  established,  in  1915,  a  chair  for  Hebrew 
literature,  filled  by  A.  S.  Yahuda,  a  native  of 
Palestine. 

ITALY 

Italy  was  split  up  into  many  petty  states  whose 
boundary  lines  were  constantly  shifting.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  Jews  varied  in  its  details  according  to 
time  and  locality  but  is  the  same  in  general  through- 
out mediaeval  times.  It  was  characterized  by  restric- 
tion of  economic  liberty  and  humiliation  in  social 
position.  The  Jews  produced  quite  a  number  of  emi- 
nent scholars,  physicians  (sometimes  attending  on  the 
Popes),  astronomers  and  translators  of  Arabic  works 
into  Latin.  Their  economic  activity  was  largely  con- 
fined to  money-lending  and,  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
they  became  the  pioneers  of  banking  by  combining 
the  pawn-shops  in  a  certain  city  into  companies  which 
were  given  the  exclusive  privilege  of  money-lending. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  clerical  agitation  became 
very  strong,  and  loan  associations  were  formed  under 
priestly  management  to  suppress  money-lending  by 
Jews.  One  of  the  most  notable  agitators  in  this 
respect  was  Bernardin  of  Feltre,  who  is  known 
through  his  participation  in  the  ritual  murder  trial  at 
Trent  (1475).  Italy  became  a  force  in  Jewish  culture 
by  the  establishment  of  the  first  Hebrew  printing 
presses.  The  first  book  printed  seems  to  have  been 
published  in  1474.    One  of  the  earliest  printed  books 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  69 

was  the  "Psalms"  with  the  commentary  of  David 
Kimhi,  1475.  The  edict  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews 
from  Spain  affected  also  those  of  Sicily  (1492)  and 
southern  Italy  (1510),  at  that  time  Spanish  depend- 
encies. Since  that  period  there  has  existed  no  Jewish 
community  in  that  part  of  Italy. 

HUNGARY 

In  Hungary  the  Jews  settled  at  a  very  early  date. 
They  were  tax-farmers  and  financiers.  Our  first 
documentary  evidence  goes  back  to  1251,  when  King 
Bela  IV  granted  them  a  charter,  essentially  a  repro- 
duction of  that  granted  by  the  Duke  of  Austria  in 
1244.  Under  Louis  (1342-1382)  they  were  given  the 
alternative  of  expulsion  or  conversion  to  Christianity. 
During  the  fifteenth  century  the  Jews  suffered  from 
persecution  and  expulsion. 

POLAND 

In  Poland  the  Jews  appear  in  the  thirteenth  century 
as  a  small  community  without  any  intellectual  life. 
In  1264  they  obtained  their  first  charter,  this  being 
confirmed  by  Casimir  the  Great  (1333-1370).  It  is 
also  a  reproduction  of  the  Austrian  law  of  1244. 
When  Capistrano  appeared  (1450)  in  Poland  the  Jews 
suffered  from  mob  attacks  but  fared  not  as  badly  as 
those  of  Bohemia.  The  persecution  of  the  Jews  in 
Western  Europe,  beginning  with  the  crusades,  drove 
many  of  them  to  emigrate  to  the  large  and  thinly 
settled  kingdom  of  Poland.  Hence  toward  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century,   Poland  was  the  center  of 


70  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Rabbinic  learning  and  has  to-day  proportionately  the 
largest  Jewish  population  in  the  world. 

THE   EAST 

In  1187  Saladin  reconquered  Jerusalem.  From  that 
time  Jews  began  to  emigrate  to  Palestine  and  Egypt. 
The  persecution  of  the  Jews  through  the  Inquisition 
and  their  expulsion  from  Spain  drove  many  to 
Morocco  and  Algeria.  The  conquest  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Turks  in  1453  brought  many  Jews  to  the 
Balkans,  and  the  number  of  the  immigrants  was  so 
large  that  their  dialect,  Ladino,  became  the  universal 
language  of  the  Jews  of  the  East,  just  as  in  Poland 
and  Hungary  the  immigrants  from  Germany  made 
Yiddish  predominant. 

JEWISH    LITERATURE, 
THIRTEENTH   TO    FIFTEENTH    CENTURY 

From  the  thirteenth  century  the  spiritual  life  of  the 
Jews  declined.  Talmudic  literature,  ritualism  and 
Kabbala  were  almost  exclusively  cultivated.  Poetry, 
exegesis,  philosophy  and  scientific  literature  were  con- 
stantly declining.  The  most  prominent  representative 
of  Maimonides'  tradition  is  David  Kimhi  of  Narbonne, 
1170-1230.  He  wrote  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  Miklol,  and 
commentaries  to  most  of  the  Biblical  books.  He  also 
took  an  active  part  in  the  defense  of  Maimonides' 
works  when  the  orthodox  of  Spain  and  France,  influ- 
enced by  the  zeal  of  the  Dominican  Friars  in  their 
attack  on  the  Albigenses  and  the  scholastic  philosophy, 
wished  to  commit  the  "Moreh"  to  the  flames.  Be- 
sides Kimhi,  two  members  of  his  family  are  noted  for 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  71 

grammatical  and  exegetical  works.  These  are  his 
father  Joseph  and  his  brother  Moses.  To  Southern 
France  belongs  also  the  family  of  Ibn  Tibbon,  four 
generations  of  which  were  prominent  translators  of 
philosophical,  Rabbinic  and  scientific  books  from 
Arabic  into  Hebrew. 

Judah  the  Elder  (1100-1150)  translated  Bahya's 
"Duties  of  the  Heart,"  Saadya's  "Dogma  and* 
Science,"  and  Judah  Halevi's  "Kuzari."  His  son 
Samuel  translated  Maimonides'  "Moreh"  and  the 
commentary  on  the  Mishna.  But  the  orthodox  party 
prevailed  in  their  opposition  to  Maimonides,  and  in 
1233  the  "Moreh"  was  publicly  burned  at  Paris.  The 
Dominicans,  who  had  been  appealed  to,  extended  their 
inquisitory  activities,  and  on  the  testimony  of  Nicholas 
Donin,  a  converted  Jew,  charged  the  Talmud  with 
hostility  to  the  Christians.  All  copies  of  the  book 
that  could  be  found  were  burned  at  Paris  in  1244. 
In  spite  of  these  attacks  philosophical  studies  did  not 
die  out  completely.  In  the  fourteenth  century  Levi 
ben  Gershom  (1288-1344)  flourished  in  Southern 
France.  His  philosophical  work,  "The  Wars  of  the 
Lord,"  is  an  attempt  to  reconcile  Judaism  with 
Platonic  philosophy,  while  the  school  of  Maimonides 
harmonized  it  with  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  He 
also  invented  an  astronomic  instrument  in  which  the 
great  astronomer  Kepler  was  much  interested. 

To  the  fourteenth  century  belongs  Hasdai  Crescas, 
whose  philosophical  treatise,  "The  Light  of  the  Lord," 
has  great  scientific  value.  Of  little  independent  value 
is  the  work  "Ikkarim"  (Fundamental  Principles),  by 
Joseph   Albo    (1380-1440).      He   is    an    imitator   of 


72  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Maimonides ;  but,  instead  of  thirteen  fundamental 
articles  of  faith,  he  recognized  only  three — God,  reve- 
lation and  the  future  life.  To  the  school  of  the  preach- 
ers belongs  Isaac  Arama,  whose  work,  "Akedat 
Yizhak,"  is  a  philosophical  interpretation  of  the  Mid- 
rash,  and  follows  the  weekly  portions  of  the  Haggadic 
writers. 

Isaac  Abarbanel,  bom  in  Lisbon,  1447,  died  in 
Venice,  1508,  wrote  various  dogmatic  treatises  in 
which,  as  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  he 
outlined  his  views.  He  showed  little  independence, 
sometimes  plagiarized,  and  is  very  verbose.  He  put 
together  a  great  number  of  questions  on  some  topic  in 
Biblical  literature,  and  attempted  to  answer  them. 
From  this  time  philosophy  and  scientific  literature  are 
on  the  decline.  The  intellectual  activity  of  the  Jews 
is  confined  mostly  to  Rabbinic  literature. 

Secular  subjects  are  rarely  taken  up  until  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  Then  a  revival  of  secular 
knowledge  and  scientific  literature  took  place.  Of 
the  scientific  writers  Jacob  Anatoli,  1200-1250,  in 
Italy,  translated  serious  scientific  works  from  Arabic 
and  Hebrew  into  Latin  for  Frederick  II.  Kalonymos 
ben  Kalonymos  of  Rome,  1280-1340,  wrote  an  ethical 
treatise,  "Eben  Bohan"  (Tried  Stone  from  Isaiah 
xxviii,  16),  and  a  parody  of  the  Talmud,  "Masseket 
Purim."  To  the  same  period  belongs  Immanuel  ben 
Solomon  of  Rome,  a  friend  of  Dante,  author  of 
"Mehabberot,"  a  poem  in  the  style  of  the  "Divina 
Commedia."  This  in  some  places  is  lascivious,  and 
was  condemned  by  Joseph  Caro  in  the  "Shulhan 
Aruk."     In  the  style  of  Dante,  Moses  Rieti   (1388- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  73 

1460)  wrote  his  "Mikdash  Meat."  In  Spain,  Santob 
de  Carrion  and  Judah  Bonsenyor  wrote  didactic  poetry 
in  Spanish,  based  in  part  on  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic 
teachings.  The  latter  compiled  his  work  by  the  order 
of  King  James  II  of  Aragon,  as  a  text-book  for  the 
instruction  of  the  princes  of  the  house.  An  excep- 
tional figure  is  the  German  Jew  Suesskind  von  Trim- 
berg  (about  1200),  whose  poems  were  included  in  the 
collection  of  the  best  works  of  the  Minnesingers. 

To  the  fifteenth  century  belong  Judah  Messer  Leon 
of  Mantua,  who  wrote  a  text-book  on  rhetoric  in 
Hebrew,  Nofet  Zufim  (honeycombs),  and  Elijah  del 
Medigo,  a  native  of  Crete,  who  was  professor  of  phi- 
losophy in  Padua.  He  wrote  an  apology  for  Judaism 
in  Hebrew,  "Behinat  Ha-Dat"  (Evidenced  Religion). 
In  this  class  the  polemical  writers  against  Christianity 
are  included.  Joshua  Allorqui  of  Spain,  who  later  on 
became  a  convert  to  Christianity,  wrote  such  a  polem- 
ical treatise  in  the  form  of  a  letter  addressed  to  his 
former  teacher,  the  apostate  Paul,  Bishop  of  Burgos. 
A  similar  epistle  was  written  by  Profit  Duran  Efodi. 
In  scientific  literature  we  have  the  anthology  of  the 
Midrashim  called  "Yalkut  Shimeoni,"  by  Simeon  Kara 
(the  Bible  reader)  of  the  thirteenth  century.  This  is 
a  selection  of  homiletical  expositions  from  old  Rah 
binic  works  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  books  of  the 
Bible.  A  similar  work  is  the  "Yalkut  Machiri"  of 
uncertain  date,  but  most  likely  from  the  fourteenth 
century,  by  Machir  ben  Aba  Mari.  Only  parts  of  it 
are  in  existence. 


74  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

TALMUDIC    LITEEATUEE 

In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  ortho- 
dox authorities  in  France  and  Spain  attacked  Maimon- 
ides'  philosophy,  which  had  previously  been  severely 
criticized  by  Abraham  ben  David  of  Posquieres,  his 
contemporary  in  notes  on  Maimonides'  code.  Their 
leaders  were  Meir  Abulafia  in  Spain,  and  Solomon  ben 
Abraham  of  Montpellier  in  France.  They  denounced 
the  work  of  Maimonides  to  the  Dominicans,  and  the 
latter  burned  it  publicly  at  Paris  in  1244.  Of  Talmudic 
authorities  who  possessed  secular  learning  and  worked 
in  the  field  of  exegesis  the  most  prominent  was  Moses 
ben  Nachman  of  Gerona  (Ramban,  1200-1270).  His 
commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  contains  sound  exeget- 
ical  views,  is  strictly  traditional  and  gives  space  to 
Kabbalistic  interpretations.  He  indulged  in  vehement 
invectives  against  Ibn  Ezra,  and  in  his  notes  on  Alfasi 
vehemently  attacked  Zerahiah  Halevi  for  his  critical 
remarks  on  Alfasi  in  "The  Wars  of  the  Lord." 

One  of  the  most  prominent  Spanish  Rabbis  was 
Solomon  Ibn  Adret  (Rashba),  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  He  was  opposed  to  philosophy 
and  issued  a  prohibition  that  no  one  should  read  the 
Moreh  before  he  was  twenty-five  years  old.  He  pro- 
fessed a  belief  in  every  statement  in  the  Talmud,  even 
if  in  conflict  with  well-known  scientific  facts.  He 
left  thousands  of  responsa. 

A  younger  contemporary  of  his  is  Asher  ben 
Yechiel,  a  disciple  of  Meir  of  Rothenburg  (German 
rabbi  of  the  thirteenth  century),  who  emigrated  to 
Spain  in  1305  and  died  in  Toledo  in  1327.    He  wrote 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  75 

a  work  on  the  plan  of  that  by  Alfasi,  making  an 
abstract  of  the  practical  laws  of  the  Talmud.  It  is 
printed  in  most  of  the  Talmud  editions,  and  quoted  as 
Rosh.  He  had  eight  sons  who  were  Talmudic  schol- 
ars, and  of  these  the  most  prominent  was  Jacob  ben 
Asher,  who  died  in  1350.  He  wrote  an  important  set 
of  codes  of  the  Rabbinic  law,  called  Turim.  The  first, 
Orah  Hayyim,  treats  chiefly  of  liturgies,  the  second, 
Eben  Haezer,  of  matrimonial  laws,  the  third,  Yoreh 
Deah,  of  dietary  laws,  the  fourth,  Hoshen  Mishpat, 
of  civil  laws. 

Another  disciple  of  Meir  of  Rothenburg  was  Mor- 
decai  ben  Hillel,  who  was  killed  in  Nuremberg  during 
the  Rindfleisch  riots  of  1298.  He  wrote  notes  to 
Alfasi's  code,  of  value  because  of  their  many  histori- 
cal references.  To  the  fourteenth  century  belongs 
Isaac  ben  Sheshet  (Ribash)  of  Barcelona,  who  fled 
after  the  persecution  of  1391,  and  became  Chief  Rabbi 
of  Algiers,  where  he  died  about  1410.  In  his  decisions 
he  is  very  orthodox,  but  distinguished  by  his  humani- 
tarian views.  Thus  he  forced  his  congregations  to 
rescind  an  order  against  the  landing  of  further  immi- 
grants. His  successor  was  Simeon  ben  Zemach  Duran, 
whose  responsa  are  collected  under  the  title  (Tashbez). 
He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  rabbi  who 
received  a  salary.  In  Italy,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
Isaiah  di  Trani  the  Elder,  and  his  grandson,  Isaiah  di 
Trani  the  Younger,  flourished. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  Joseph 
Colon  wrote  a  volume  of  responsa.  His  opponent  was 
Elijah  Kapsali.  Of  special  interest  in  Colon's  deci- 
sions is  the  case  of  the  congregation  of  Nuremberg,  in 


76  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

which  he  held  that  all  German  congregations  were 
obliged  to  contribute  toward  the  expenses  of  the  trial 
of  Israel  Bruna,  who  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the 
murder  of  a  Christian  child  in  1477.  In  Germany  the 
most  important  rabbi  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
Israel  Isserlein  of  Marburg,  1400-1470,  author  of 
Terumat  Ha-Deshen,  a  collection  of  responsa  contain- 
ing important  historical  notes.  When  the  authorities 
in  Breslau  issued  a  law  that  Jews  had  to  swear  with 
uncovered  head  and  by  the  name  Yahve,  he  permitted 
it,  provided  it  was  not  meant  as  an  attempt  to  convert 
the  Jews. 

The  German  and  French  rabbis  in  the  thirteenth 
century  were  characterized  by  their  strict  adherence 
to  authority  and  rigorous  view  of  the  law.  The  most 
prominent  is  Judah  ben  Samuel  Hehasid,  author  of 
"Sefer  Hasidim."  Eleazar  ben  Jehudah  of  Worms, 
a  descendant  of  the  Kalonymos  family,  and  author  of 
Rokeah  (druggist),  is  a  type  of  this  ascetic  school. 
Another  is  Moses  of  Coucy,  author  of  a  compendium 
of  the  613  commandments  Sefer  Mizwot  Haggadol, 
abbreviated  Semag. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  study  of  Kabbala 
received  strong  impetus  from  Isaac,  the  blind,  son  of 
Rabed.  His  disciples  were  Ezra  and  Ezriel;  their 
disciple  was  Ramban,  and  he  introduced  Kabbala  into 
his  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  About  1290  Moses 
of  Leon  wrote  the  Zohar,  a  Kabbalistic  Midrash  on  the 
Pentateuch,  which  he  claimed  was  written  by  Simeon 
ben  Yohai,  disciple  of  Akiba,  and  discovered  by  him 
in  a  cave.    It  is  written  in  Aramaic. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    PERIOD    OF    IMPEOVEMENT     (1492-1791) 

The  Jews  exiled  from  Spain  went  to  Turkey,  North 
Africa,  Oriental  countries,  and  especially  to  Palestine. 
They  came  in  such  numbers  that  their  language,  the 
so-called  Ladino,  became  the  language  of  the  Jews  in 
these  countries,  taking  the  place  of  Arabic  and  Greek, 
Sultan  Bajazed  II,  1481-1513,  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  he  could  not  understand  why  Ferdinand  of  Spain 
should  be  called  a  wise  king,  since  he  had  impover- 
ished his  own  country  and  enriched  Turkey.  Jews 
stood  very  high  at  Court.  Joseph  Hamon  was  physi- 
cian to  Sultans  Bajazed  II  and  Selim  I  (1512-1520) 
and  his  son,  Moses  Hamon,  to  Sultan  Soliman  II 
(1520-1566).  Joseph  Nasi  (died  1579)  and  his  aunt, 
Gracia,  whose  daughter  Reyna  he  had  married,  were 
Marranos  who  had  fled  from  Spain  to  Antwerp, 
then  to  Venice  and  finally  to  Constantinople.  Joseph 
was  a  special  favorite  of  the  Sultan,  who  forced  the 
Republic  of  Venice  to  surrender  the  property  of 
Donna  Gracia,  which  had  been  confiscated.  The 
Sultan  made  Joseph  Duke  of  Naxos,  and  he  seriously 
contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  Jewish  state  there. 
Owing  to  Don  Joseph's  influence,  the  Pope  was  forced 
to  free  a  number  of  Marranos  who  had  been  impris- 
oned in  the  Papal  States  and  charged  with  apostasy. 

77 


78  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Solomon  Ashkenazi  (died  about  1600),  a  native  of 
Venetia,  won  high  favor  at  the  court  of  the  Sultan 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  diplomatic  affairs.  He 
was  instrumental  in  drafting  the  peace  treaty  between 
the  sultan  and  the  republic  of  Venice  (1574),  and 
represented  him  at  the  election  of  Stephan  Bathori 
as  King  of  Poland  and  on  other  similar  occasions.  He 
also  was  the  benefactor  of  his  co-religionists,  and  to 
his  influence  was  due  the  repeal  of  an  edict  which  had 
decreed  the  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Venice.  A 
number  of  Jews,  prompted  by  Messianic  expectations, 
founded  settlements  in  Jerusalem  and  Safed,  which 
Joseph  Nasi  generously  aided. 

In  Italy  the  condition  of  the  Jews  changed  for  the 
worse.  Venice  established  the  first  ghetto,  called  thus 
after  the  gun  foundry  "Gietto"  in  the  vicinity,  accord- 
ing to  some  scholars,  but  the  word  is  more  probably  an 
abbreviation  from  "borghetto"  (little  borough).  At 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Popes  employed  Jewish  physicians, 
such  as  Bonet  del  Lattes  under  Leo  X.  But  Paul  IV 
and  Pius  V  issued  oppressive  laws  against  the  Jews, 
restricting  their  commercial  activity  to  trading  in 
cast-off  clothing,  enforcing  the  marks  of  distinction, 
Jew  badges,  and  ordering  the  censorship  of  Hebrew 
literature.  One  of  the  most  atrocious  cases  of  persecu- 
tion is  the  burning  at  the  stake  of  twenty- four 
Marranos  in  Ancona,  1556,  and  only  the  fear  of 
reprisals  by  the  Sultan  saved  the  lives  of  hundreds  of 
other  refugees.  The  reaction  against  Protestantism 
and  the  foundation  of  the  Jesuit  order  further  tended 
to  make  the  condition  of  the  Jews  still  worse.     The 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  79 

Council  of  Trent,  1563,  prohibited  the  Talmud  alto- 
gether, but  later  on  modified  its  decree  to  the  effect 
that  the  word  Talmud  should  not  be  printed  on  the 
title  page  of  the  work  and  that  every  edition  should 
be  submitted  to  the  ecclesiastic  censor  aided  by  Jewish 
converts.  Prominent  among  the  latter  were  Elijah  and 
Solomon  Romano,  grandsons  of  Elijah  Levita. 

The  Itahan  Jews,  in  order  to  obviate  the  dangers 
arising  from  informations  against  Jewish  literature, 
decided  in  1564  that  no  book  should  be  printed  with- 
out the  consent  of  three  prominent  rabbis  and  the 
trustees  of  the  congregation  in  the  district  where  the 
press  was  located.  By  these  measures  the  Hebrew 
printing  trade,  which  had  flourished  in  Italy  during  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  ruined  and  the 
press  transferred  to  Poland.  There,  owing  to  the  low 
state  of  industry,  the  art  of  printing  declined. 

The  frequent  expulsions  and  the  constant  oppres- 
sions fostered  Messianic  hopes.  In  1507  a  Messianic 
pretender  arose  in  Northern  Italy.  His  name  was 
Asher  Lemlein.  Of  the  particulars  of  his  career  we 
know  nothing.  Of  greater  importance  is  the  appear- 
ance of  a  man  who  called  himself  David  Reubeni  in 
Venice,  1522.  He  pretended  to  be  the  brother  of  the 
reigning  king  of  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  living  in 
Arabia,  and  planned  an  alliance  of  the  Christian 
powers  against  the  Mohammedans.  For  this  he 
pledged  the  aid  of  the  ten  tribes  living  there.  The 
Pope  sent  him  to  Portugal,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Solomon  Molcho,  a  young  Marrano, 
who  returned  with  Reubeni  to  Italy,  preached  and 
prophesied  there  and  became  a  favorite  of  the  Pope. 


80  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

The  Jews  feared  the  results  of  his  eccentricities  and 
denounced  him  to  the  authorities  as  an  apostate  from 
Christianity,  but  the  Pope  shielded  him.  Finally  both 
went  to  Germany  in  1530,  where  they  hoped  to  win 
Charles  V  to  their  plans.  They  were  imprisoned; 
Molcho,  as  an  apostate,  was  burned  at  the  stake  and 
Reubeni  sent  to  Portugal,  where  every  trace  of  him 
was  lost.  Who  he  was  is  not  known.  He  seems  to 
have  travelled  in  the  East,  and  probably  was  an  Arab. 

The  Reformation  of  1517  at  first  influenced  the  con- 
dition of  the  Jews  for  the  better.  The  accusations 
that  the  Jews  desecrated  hosts  ceased,  as  a  natural 
consequence  of  the  rejection  by  the  Protestants  of  the 
Catholic  dogma  of  transsubstantiation.  As  late  as 
1492  a  number  of  Jews  were  burned  for  this  supposed 
crime  at  Sternberg  in  Mecklenburg.  In  1510,  thirty- 
nine  Jews  were  burned  at  Berlin  for  the  same  cause. 
But  aside  from  this,  Protestantism  in  itself  stood  for 
religious  toleration.  Luther,  in  the  beginning  of  his 
career  (1523),  spoke  of  the  Jews  as  ''cousins  of  our 
Lord,"  who  should  be  treated  with  kindness.  He 
thought  that  his  purified  Christianity  would  win  them 
over,  but,  toward  the  end  of  his  life,  when  he  had 
failed  in  his  efforts  and  was  embittered  for  other  rea- 
sons, he  wrote  two  pamphlets  filled  with  invective 
against  the  Jews  (1543).  In  these  he  advocated  the 
confiscation  of  their  property,  the  destruction  of  their 
synagogues,  and  the  forcible  baptism  of  their  children. 
Still  more  bitter  than  Luther's  attacks  were  those  of 
John  Eck,  his  Catholic  opponent. 

It  seems,  however,  that  the  Reformation  increased 
the  number   of  Jewish   converts.     Prominent  among 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  81 

these  was  Emanuel  Tremellius  (1510-1580),  an  Ital- 
ian, who  first  became  a  monk  and  then  a  Protestant. 
He  was  a  friend  of  Calvin,  and  translated  the  Bible 
for  him  into  Latin.  He  also  translated  Calvin's  Cate- 
chism into  Hebrew.  Another  convert  was  Luke  Helic, 
who  assisted  the  Moravian  Brethren  in  translating  the 
Bible  into  the  Slavic  language.  A  calumniator  of 
Judaism  was  Antonius  Margaritha,  the  son  of  a  rabbi 
of  Ratisbon,  named  Jacob  Margaliot,  who  in  1530 
wrote  a  libel  on  Judaism.  Characteristic  was  the  act 
of  the  Protestant  Landgrave,  Louis  of  Hesse,  who 
advised  the  suppression  of  an  anti-Jewish  book, 
"Jiidenfeind,"  by  Nigrinus  (1570)  saying  that  the 
same  arguments  might  just  as  well  be  used  by  Catholics 
against  Protestants. 

Jean  Bodin  (1530-1596),  a  French  jurist,  wrote  a 
book  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  the  representa- 
tives of  various  religions,  in  which  the  argument  pre- 
sented by  the  Jew  appears  to  be  the  most  plausible. 
The  author  pleads  for  universal  toleration.  Judaism, 
at  that  time,  won  quite  a  number  of  converts.  The  dis- 
ciples of  Michael  Servet,  a  Spaniard,  who  rejected  the 
dogma  of  the  trinity  and  was  burned  at  the  stake  by 
Calvin  in  Geneva,  emigrated  to  Poland  and  Hungary 
where  they  found  toleration.  A  number  of  their  ad- 
herents accepted  Judaism.  One  of  these,  Catherine 
Wejgiel,  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Cracow,  1538.  In 
Hungary  quite  a  number  of  Magyars  became  enthu- 
siastic Jews  and  remained  so  in  spite  of  considerable 
persecution.  One  of  them,  John  Troczkai,  by  the  or- 
der of  the  authorities  was  stoned  to  death  by  gypsies  in 
1639.    Their  descendants  survived  in  spite  of  all  per- 


82  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

secutions  and  in  1869  were  finally  permitted  to  profess 
Judaism  openly.  In  Russia  some  high  ecclesiastic  dig- 
nitaries were  converted  to  Judaism  as  early  as  the 
fifteenth  century  and  their  followers  gained  in  strength 
in  spite  of  all  persecutions.  Some  of  them,  without 
renouncing  Christianity,  merely  rejected  the  belief  in 
the  divinity  of  Jesus  and  observed  the  seventh  day 
Sabbath.  They  were  called  Subotniki.  The  Russian 
government,  unable  to  force  them  back  into  the  state 
church,  exiled  them  to  Trans-Caucasia  where  they 
formed  numerous  communities  and  have  about  15,000 
followers. 

The  Renaissance,  which  produced  the  Reformation, 
also  had  a  favorable  effect  on  the  position  of  the 
Jews.  When  John  Pfefferkorn,  a  convert  from  Juda- 
ism, in  1506  accused  the  Jews  of  blaspheming  Jesus 
in  their  prayers  and  in  their  literature,  and  proposed 
the  confiscation  of  all  their  books,  John  Reuchlin, 
a  famous  diplomat  and  expert  Hebrew  scholar,  ren- 
dered an  opinion  in  their  favor.  The  Dominicans  of 
Cologne,  among  them  a  former  rabbi,  Victor  von 
Karben,  whose  tool  Pfefiferkorn  had  been,  made  the 
latter's  cause  their  own,  but  did  not  succeed.  In 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where  the  books  had  been 
confiscated,  they  were  ordered  to  be  returned  to  their 
owners,  and  a  long  and  bitter  controversy,  in  which 
both  parties  engaged  in  vile  attacks,  ensued.  In  the 
meantime  the  Reformation  intervened ;  and  the  Pope, 
who  had  been  appealed  to,  ended  the  matter  by  an 
order  in  1516  that  both  parties  should  keep  their 
peace.  He  reversed  this  decision  in  favor  of  the 
Dominicans  in  1520. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  83 

Such  occasions  as  the  calumniations  of  Pfefferkorn 
and  others  showed  the  arbitrariness  of  municipahties 
and  lords  in  the  treatment  of  the  Jews,  and  pointed 
out  the  advisability  of  Jews  appointing  an  advocate, 
"Shtadlan,"  who  would  always  defend  their  rights 
when  necessary.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these 
wa^^Josel  Rosheim  (1478-1554)  who  was  originally 
appointed  as  their  advocate  by  the  Jews  of  Alsace,  but 
often  acted  in  behalf  of  all  the  Jews  of  Germany,  here 
and  there  arbitrating  dissensions  in  congregations. 
He  obtained  various  charters  from  Emperor  Charles 
V,  in  which  protection  to  the  Jews  was  promised. 
Among  these  stipulations,  one  issued  in  1530  is  of 
special  interest.  The  Emperor  prohibited  the  ex- 
pulsion of  Jews  from  his  territory  without  his  con- 
sent. This  rule,  however,  was  not  even  observed  in 
the  immediate  possessions  of  the  German  rulers.  At 
various  times  Ferdinand  I,  brother  of  Charles  V,  and 
German  Emperor  (1522-1564)  ordered  expulsions 
from  Austria  in  1557,  and  in  1541  and  1561  from 
Bohemia;  they  were  hardly  ever  carried  out.  When 
the  expulsion  from  Bohemia  was  decreed,  Mordecai 
Meisels,  a  wealthy  Jew  of  Prague,  1528-1601,  and 
the  descendant  of  the  Italian  family  Soncino,  which 
in  1513  established  a  printing  press  in  Prague,  went 
to  Rome  and  obtained  a  bull  from  the  Pope  for  the 
protection  of  the  Jews.  The  law  of  expulsion  from 
Bohemia  was  repealed.  Meisels  was  in  other  ways 
a  great  benefactor  of  his  co-religionists. 

In  Berlin,  where  the  Jews  had  been  expelled  in  1510, 

^  Leopold    (Lippold)    was  a  financier  and  favorite  of 

the  Margrave  Joachim  II  of  Brandenburg.    After  the 


84  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

death  of  his  master  he  was  accused  of  having  poi- 
soned him  and  executed  in  1573.  A  new  refuge  was 
opened  to  the  Jews  in  Holland,  when  this  country 
gained  its  independence  from  Spain.  A  family  of 
fugitive  Marranos  is  said  to  have  been  driven  to  Em- 
den,  Hanover,  by  unfavorable  winds,  and  thence  they 
were  advised  to  go  to  Amsterdam  (1593).  Moses  ben 
Uri  of  Emden  followed  them  and  instructed  them  in 
Judaism.  Some  other  converts  followed,  among  them 
monks,  statesmen  and  scholars.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  rabbis  of  Amsterdam  was  Manasseh  ben 
Israel,  who,  in  1654,  tried  to  obtain  from  Cromwell 
official  permission  for  the  Jews  to  resettle  in  England, 
whence  they  had  been  expelled  in  1290.  A  bill  intro- 
duced into  Parliament  for  their  readmission  failed  to 
pass,  but  prominent  jurists  rendered  an  opinion  that 
the  expulsion  was  not  a  legal  act.  The  Jews  already 
in  London  were  not  molested,  opened  a  synagogue 
and  acquired  a  cemetery  in  1660.  Charles  II  was 
favorable  to  the  Jews,  some  of  whom  had  assisted 
him  financially  before  he  had  ascended  the  throne;  in 
1664  he  confirmed  their  right  of  residence. 

About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  a  col- 
ony of  Marranos  from  Amsterdam  settled  in  Brazil, 
which  was  then  under  Dutch  rule.  When  the  Portu- 
guese reconquered  it  (1654)  the  Jews  were  expelled 
and  settled  in  the  Dutch  West  Indies  and  New  York, 
then  New  Amsterdam.  Governor  Stuyvesant  objected 
to  their  landing,  but  the  directors  of  the  West  India 
Company,  among  whom  there  were  several  Jews, 
overruled  his  decision.     Meantime  the  Jews  had  set- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  85 

tied  in  Rhode  Island,  where  Roger  Williams  had 
promulgated  full  religious  freedom  in  1657. 

In  Amsterdam  the  Portuguese  community  combined 
strict  traditional  piety  with  secular  learning  and  great 
commercial  activity.  To  the  Portuguese  Jews,  Am- 
sterdam owes  its  importance  as  the  center  of  the 
diamond  trade.  Uriel  Acosta,  who  held  high  office 
in  Spain  and  emigrated  to  Holland  in  order  to  openly 
profess  Judaism,  became  imbued  with  deistic  ideas, 
was  tried  as  a  heretic  and  did  penance.  Then,  ex- 
communicated as  a  backslider,  he  became  despondent 
and,  having  attempted  to  kill  Rabbi  Saul  Morteira, 
committed  suicide  in  1640.  Baruch  or  Benedict 
Spinoza  (1632-1677)  was  also  excommunicated,  but 
disregarded  all  attempts  to  bring  him  back  to  Juda- 
ism. He  is  the  originator  of  a  famous  system  of 
philosophy,  called  Pantheism  or  Monism,  laid  down 
in  his  principal  work,  the  "Ethics."  He  also  occu- 
pies a  prominent  place  in  the  history  of  Biblical 
Criticism  through  his  work,  "Tractatus  Theologico  Po- 
liticus." 

In  1666,  the  year  which  the  Christian  Millennari- 
ans  regarded  as  Messianic  by  reason  of  a  passage  in 
Revelation  xiii,  18,  Judaism  was  stirred  by  Sabbatai 
Zebi  of  Smyrna,  who  proclaimed  himself  the  Messiah. 
Expelled  from  that  city  he  went  to  Egypt,  where  he 
received  the  enthusiastic  support  of  Raphael  Joseph,  a 
wealthy  tax-farmer.  In  Palestine,  whither  he  went, 
he  found  many  admirers,  and  the  prophet,  Nathan 
of  Gaza,  proclaimed  him  the  true  Messiah.  Being 
denounced  for  high  treason,  Sabbatai  was  brought  to 
Constantinople  and  imprisoned  in  the  fort  of  Abydos, 


86  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

but  the  means  supplied  by  his  followers  enabled  him 
to  hold  court  like  a  prince.  Everywhere  in  Europe 
the  majority  of  the  Jews  believed  him  to  be  the  Mes- 
siah. The  representatives  of  the  Jews  in  Poland  sent 
two  prominent  rabbis  as  a  committee  to  him,  but 
Nehemiah  Hakohen,  the  Polish  Kabbalist,  who  had 
come  to  ascertain  the  truth,  denounced  him  as  an  im- 
postor. Sabbatai  Zebi  was  brought  before  the  Sultan 
to  answer  a  charge  of  high  treason;  and,  in  order  to 
save  his  life,  he  turned  to  Islam.  The  Sultan  gave 
him  an  office,  and  for  ten  years,  until  his  death,  he 
remained  in  contact  with  the  Jews.  Many  of  his 
followers  turned  to  Islam,  and  still  exist  as  a  special 
sect  called  Donmah  in  Salonica.  Others  of  his  fol- 
lowers who  remained  true  to  Judaism  formed  a  mys- 
tic community,  which  adopted  the  name  of  Hasidim. 
They  were  excommunicated  by  the  most  prominent 
rabbis,  but  progressed  rapidly,  although  many  of 
them  were  unmasked  as  frauds.  Nehemiah  Hayon,  an 
Oriental,  wrote  a  book  in  which  he  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  (1712)  and  Jacob  Frank,  a  Polish 
Jew,  formed  a  Judaeo-Christian  sect.  The  latter  was 
supported  by  those  who  wished  to  convert  the  Jews 
to  Christianity,  and  lived  in  princely  style  in  Offen- 
bach, where  he  died  in  1791. 

The  center  of  Hasidism  was  in  Podolia  and  Volhy- 
nia;  Israel  Besht,  1695-1760,  may  be  considered  as  its 
founder.  His  work  was  continued  by  his  disciples, 
among  whom  Baer  Mezdzyrzecz  (1700-1772)  was  the 
most  prominent.  Later  Nahman  of  Bratzlav  (1779- 
1810)  developed  the  theory  of  miraculous  powers  of 
healing  granted  to  favored  individuals  and  the  mystic 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  87 

interpretation  of  the  Bible  and  the  Rabbinic  com- 
mands. They  still  have  a  great  number  of  the  former 
devotees  in  parts  of  Austrian  and  Russian  Poland. 

Persecutions  in  the  seventeenth  century  are  of  rarer 
occurrence  than  in  former  times.  The  most  serious 
one  was  that  which,  with  several  interruptions,  lasted 
from  1648  to  1655,  and  the  leader  of  which  was  the 
Cossack  captain  Chmelnicki.  The  Cossacks,  who  were 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Polish  king,  rebelled 
against  their  masters,  and  the  Jews  had  to  suffer, 
partly  because  they  were  unable  to  protect  themselves, 
and  partly  because,  as  tax-farmers,  they  had  been  the 
instrument  of  the  extortion  practised  by  the  Polish 
nobles.  Thousands  were  massacred,  and  since  that 
time  the  20th  of  Sivan  is  observed  as  a  fast-day  in 
Poland.  They  fled  in  all  directions,  and  many  great 
Talmudists  among  them  became  rabbis  in  Western 
Europe. 

The  Jesuits  in  Poland  and  in  those  places  where  tHe 
Catholic  Church  had  succeeded  in  crushing  the  Ref- 
ormation became  very  powerful  and  fostered  hatred 
of  the  Jews,  often  resulting  in  mob  violence.  In  1664 
such  a  massacre  occurred  in  Lemberg.  The  Jews 
were  accused  of  the  murder  of  Christians;  similar 
charges  were  often  made.  In  1659  two  prominent 
Jews  were  put  to  death  on  Rosh  Hashanah  in  Rossieny, 
Lithuania,  under  the  charge  of  ritual  murder ;  in 
1694  Lazarus  Abeles  and  a  friend  of  his  were  impris- 
oned in  Prague,  charged  with  having  killed  the  son  of 
Abeles,  who  wanted  to  become  a  Christian.  Abeles 
hanged  himself  and  his  friend  was  cruelly  put  to 
death.    In  Vienna  and  Prague  mission  services,  which 


88  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

the  Jews  were  compelled  to  attend  every  Sabbath,  were 
held  by  the  Jesuits  since  1630.  In  1670  Emperor 
Leopold  I  expelled  the  Jews  from  Vienna,  influenced 
partly  by  the  hatred  of  the  citizens  and  partly  by  the 
bigotry  of  the  Empress,  a  Spanish  princess.  Some  of 
the  refugees  were  given  permission  by  the  Elector 
Frederick  William  of  Brandenburg  to  settle  in  Berlin. 
At  about  the  same  time  Halle,  Halberstadt  and  Dessau 
were  opened  to  them.  In  1670  Herz  Levi  of  Metz  was 
accused  of  having  murdered  a  Christian  child  and  was 
put  to  death.    His  innocence  was  afterwards  proved. 

Peculiar  to  the  history  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  were  the  court  Jews,  Hof-Jude,  Hof- 
factor,  Minister-Resident.  Prominent  among  them 
were  Elijah  Gomperz  of  Cleve,  Moses  Benjamin  Wolf 
of  Dessau,  Jost  Libman  of  Berlin,  Behrendt  Lehman 
of  Dresden,  and  Samuel  Oppenheimer  and  Samson 
Wertheimer  of  Vienna.  These  Jews  did  service  as 
jewelers,  bankers,  general  brokers  and  army  contract- 
ors, and,  as  such,  were  exempt  from  Jewish  taxes  and 
certain  disabilities.  They  possessed  great  influence, 
which  they  used  to  good  advantage  for  their  fellow- 
Jews.  Samuel  Oppenheimer,  who  died  in  1703,  ob- 
tained from  Emperor  Leopold  an  order  of  confiscation 
of  an  anti-Jewish  book,  "Entdecktes  Judenthum,"  by 
J.  A.  Eisenmenger  (1700),  which,  up  to  date,  has 
served  as  a  repertory  for  anti-Semitic  writers. 

In  1614  a  serious  riot  broke  out  in  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  led  by  the  guilds,  which  accused  the  patri- 
cians controlling  the  municipal  council  of  partiality 
to  the  Jews.  The  council,  aided  by  imperial  troops, 
succeeded  in  suppressing  the  rebellion  after  consider- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  89 

able  difficulty.  Vincent  Fettmilch,  the  leader,  wag- 
quartered,  his  home  demolished,  and  his  family  ex- 
pelled from  the  city.  Other  ringleaders  were  be- 
headed. While  the  city  council  thus  showed  its 
sincere  intention  to  have  the  law  respected  even  with 
regard  to  the  Jews,  the  new  legal  regulation  for  the 
Jews  of  Frankfort,  "Juden-Staettigkeit,"  was  a  speci- 
men of  mediaeval  ideas,  maintaining  the  usual  restric- 
tions on  occupation,  marriage,  residence  and  quite  a 
number  of  measures,  like  the  yellow  badge,  meant  to 
disgrace  the  Jew.    It  remained  in  force  until  1807. 

The  political  condition  of  the  Jews  at  this  time 
nevertheless  shows  steady  improvement,  although  their 
threatened  expulsion  from  the  city  of  Metz  and  their 
actual  expulsion  from  Vienna  and  the  province  of 
Lower  Austria  in  1670  were  a  relapse  into  the  condi- 
tions of  the  fifteenth  century.  Still,  such  events  are 
local  and  few  and  far  between ;  on  the  other  hand,  an 
improvement  is  manifest  in  various  instances  where 
Jews  were  admitted  to  countries  or  cities  from  which 
they  had  been  expelled  in  mediaeval  times.  Particu- 
larly important  was  their  settlement  in  Hamburg  and 
Berlin  at  this  time.  In  Hamburg  the  municipal  coun- 
cil gave  to  some  Portuguese  Marranos,  who  came 
there  to  escape  from  the  Inquisition,  the  right  of  res- 
idence in  spite  of  clerical  protest.  The  first  settlers 
were  soon  followed  by  Jews  from  Germany  in  the 
course  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  finally  (1710), 
they  formed  a  legally-organized  congregation.  Simi- 
larly Portuguese  Jews  had  found  a  haven  of  refuge  in 
various  cities  of  Southern  France,  although  there  in 
a  Catholic  country  they  had  to  conceal  their  Judaism. 


90  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

They  were  first  known  as  Portuguese  merchants  and 
New  Christians  and  were  given  the  right  of  residence 
as  such  by  King  Henry  H  (1550).  They  remained 
there  in  spite  of  occasional  protests  of  the  local  pop- 
ulation and  of  the  Spanish  government,  and  although 
known  as  Jews,  were  compelled  to  participate  in 
Catholic  rites  and  to  have  their  children  baptized.  Yet 
they  remained  faithful  to  the  religion  of  their  fathers. 
In  1619  a  woman  was  burned  alive  in  St.  Jean  de  Luz 
by  a  mob  for  having  desecrated  the  host.  About  1700 
they  were,  without  any  legal  enactment,  permitted  to 
practice  their  religion,  and  since  1722  have  been  of- 
ficially recognized  as  Jews. 

In  Berlin  and  the  Margravate  of  Brandenburg,  the 
Elector  Frederick  William  I  allowed  some  Jews,  ex- 
pelled from  Vienna,  to  settle  in  his  states  on 'their 
plea  that  they  were  persecuted  for  conscience'  sake 
(1671).  Still  more  important  was  the  readmission  of 
the  Jews  to  England  by  Cromwell  in  1654;  and,  al- 
though the  bill  for  their  readmission  did  not  pass, 
their  settlement  was  quietly  overlooked  and  declared 
by  jurists  to  be  legally  justified.  Another  new  coun- 
try was  opened  to  Jewish  settlement  by  the  end  of  the 
sixteenth  century  when  the  Spanish  Netherlands  had 
made  themselves  independent  of  the  Spanish  crown. 
The  constitution  of  the  new  country  was  based  on 
perfect  religious  freedom,  and  naturally  fugitives  from 
the  Inquisition  were  among  the  first  to  avail  them- 
selves of  this  opportunity.  They  were  soon  joined  by 
the  settlers  from  other  countries,  and  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  Amsterdam  was  one  of  the  leading 
Jewish  communities  of  the  world. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  91 

The  greatest  importance,  however,  attaches  to  the 
settlement  of  the  Jews  in  the  New  World.  While  in 
the  Spanish  colonies  there  was  not  only  no  religious 
liberty  but  even  persecutions  of  Marranos  culminating 
in  autos-da-fe,  as  in  the  mother  country,  the  conquest 
of  Brazil  by  the  Dutch  in  1624  resulted  in  the  first 
organized  Jewish  cpmmunity  on  the  American  conti- 
nent. The  loss  of  Brazil  in  1654  forced  the  Jews  to 
emigrate,  and  some  settled  in  the  Dutch  and  British 
possessions  in  Central  and  South  America,  Surinam, 
Curagao  and  Jamaica.  But  the  most  important  settle- 
ment was  that  of  New  York  in  1654.  The  intolerance 
of  the  Dutch  governor  Stuyvesant  drove  some  of  the 
newcomers  to  Newport,  R.I.  (1657),  where  Roger 
Williams  had  proclaimed  full  religious  liberty. 

In  1733  some  Portuguese  Jews  from  England  availed 
themselves  of  the  opportunity  created  by  James  Ogle- 
thorpe, who  made  Georgia  an  asylum  for  convicts  who 
were  willing  to  reform.  They  sent  some  of  their  poor 
to  Savannah.  As  the  governor  was  unfavorable  to 
the  settlement  of  the  Jews,  fearing  that  their  presence 
would  prejudice  the  success  of  the  colony,  some  Jews 
went  to  South  Carolina,  for  which  the  philosopher 
John  Locke  had  drafted  a  liberal  Constitution  (1697). 
He  expressly  declared  equal  rights  for  non-Christians. 
They  formed  a  congregation  at  Charleston  in  1750, 
for  a  long  time  the  most  flourishing  Jewish  settlement 
in  the  territory  now  comprised  in  the  United  States. 
Yet  up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  only  six 
Jewish  communities  are  known :  New  York,  Newport, 
R.  I.,  Savannah,  Ga.,  Charleston,  S.  C,  Philadelphia, 
and   Lancaster,   Pa.     These   Jews   took  part  in   the 


92  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

American  Revolution,  and  their  patriotism  was  ex- 
pressly recognized  in  the  reply  of  George  Washington 
to  their  addresses  of  congratulation  when  he  was 
elected  President. 

An  English  law  of  1740,  which  gave  to  the  Jews 
in  the  American  colonies  full  rights  of  naturalization, 
also  extended  to  Canada  when  it  became  a  British 
possession.  The  Jewish  population  grew  slowly  and 
did  not  number  more  than  two  thousand  at  the  time 
of  the  Revolutionary  War.  A  rapid  increase  began 
when  the  reactionary  governments  of  Europe,  after 
the  July  revolution  of  1830,  made  the  hope  of  any  im- 
provement appear  vain.  Thus,  since  1830  large 
streams  of  Jewish  immigrants,  chiefly  from  Germany, 
have  settled  all  over  the  United  States.  Another  far 
stronger  current  of  immigration  began  in  consequence 
of  the  persecutions  in  Russia  in  1881.  Statistics  of 
immigration  give  the  number  of  "Hebrew  immigrants" 
from  1882  to  1914  as  2,497,527,  and  the  total  Jewish 
population  of  the  United  States  may  now  accordingly 
be  estimated  at  more  than  3,000,000  souls. 

In  Spanish  America  the  only  settlement  of  any  con- 
sequence is  in  Argentine,  but  scattered  Jewish  com- 
munities are  found  in  all  Central  and  South  American 
states.  Canada,  owing  to  the  more  favorable  condi- 
tion of  British  rule,  has  a  Jewish  population  of  about 
100,000.  Under  similarly  favorable  conditions.  South 
Africa,  where  the  first  Jewish  services  were  held  in 
Cape  Town  in  1842,  and  Australia,  where  the  first 
Jewish  organization  was  established  in  Sydney  in  1832, 
have  now  considerable  Jewish  settlements,  originally 
formed  by  immigrants  from  England  and  increased 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  93 

largely  by  accessions  from  Russia  and  Poland,  where 
intolerable  political  conditions  and  economic  oppres- 
sion forced  the  Jews  to  emigrate. 

INTELLECTUAL  AND  LITERARY  LIFE 

The  Reformation  was  promoted  by  the  Renaissance, 
essentially  a  critical  examination  of  traditional  views. 
While  this  movement  had  not  a  very  deep  influence  on 
the  Jews,  it  did  not  pass  entirely  unnoticed.  Elijah 
Mizrahi,  Chief  Rabbi  of  Constantinople  (1455-1525), 
took  notice  of  the  Copernican  system,  and  in  his  super- 
commentary  on  Rashi,  tried  to  harmonize  this  modern 
conception  of  the  cosmos  with  Rabbinic  statements. 
He  also  wrote  a  text-book  on  arithmetic,  a  commentary, 
on  Euclid's  elements,  an  astronomical  book,  besides 
various  Talmudic  works. 

More  evident  is  the  influence  on  Elijah  Levita, 
born  in  Neustadt-an-der-Aisch,  Bavaria,  1468,  died  in 
Venice,  1549.  Elijah  Levita  was  a  teacher  of  many 
prominent  Christian  theologians,  both  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  then  very  much  interested  in  the  study 
of  Hebrew.  He  wrote  various  works  on  Hebrew 
grammar,  among  them  "Bahur"  (1518),  a  glossary  of 
Rabbinic  words,  "Tishbi"  (1541),  and  a  book  on  the 
Massorah,  "Massoret  ha-Massoret"  (1548),  in  which 
he  laid  down  the  bold  and  since  that  time  generally- 
accepted  theory  that  the  vowel  points  and  accents 
were  not  invented  until  the  eighth  century.  He  was. 
also  a  writer  of  popular  works,  translated  the  Psalms 
into  Judseo-German  and  published  the  Bobo  book,  a 
translation  of  an  Italian  romance  based  on  the  English 


94  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

story  of  "Sir  Bevis  of  Hampton,"  underlying  Shake- 
speare's "Hamlet"  (1540). 

Another  exponent  of  the  Renaissance  was  Azariah 
dei  Rossi  of  Ferrara  (1511-1578),  who  in  his  work, 
"Meor  Enayim,"  a  collection  of  critical  essays,  de- 
fended the  theory  that  the  Talmudic  writings  are  not 
authoritative  on  matters  of  history  and  science,  but 
merely  on  Rabbinic  law.  Joseph  Solomo  del  Medigo, 
born  in  Crete,  1591,  died  at  Prague,  1655,  was  an  am- 
biguous character  and  adventurer,  a  wanderer  during 
most  of  his  life.  In  his  work,  "Elim"  (1629),  he 
had  the  courage  to  criticize  Rabbinic  theology,  and 
especially  the  Kabbala.  Leon  Modena  of  Venice 
(1571-1648),  who  was  a  very  prolific  author,  went 
still  further,  attacking  the  Rabbinic  law  as  in  many 
instances  incongruous  with  the  Bible,  and  recommend- 
ing a  change  of  the  religious  practices.  In  the  works 
which  he  published  he  merely  indicated  his  liberal 
ideas;  he  clearly  stated  them  in  works  that  remained 
unpublished  for  two  centuries. 

In  Italy,  where  secular  education  was  not  held  in 
such  abhorrence  as  was  the  case  in  Northern  Europe, 
in  the  seventeenth  century  twO'  women  wrote  Italian 
poetry  and  made  translations  from  Hebrew.  These 
are  Deborah  Ascarelli  and  Sarah  Copia  Sullam.  An 
attempt  to  rationalize  Talmudic  passages  was  made 
as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Jacob  ibn  Habib,  who  was  among  the  exiles  from 
Spain,  settled  in  Constantinople,  and  collected  the  Hag- 
gadic  passages  of  the  Talmud,  with  the  intention  of 
publishing  them  with  an  apologetic  commentary.  He 
died  in  1516  after  having  finished  only  part  of  his 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  95 

work;  it  was  edited  after  his  death  by  his  son.  It  is 
even  now,  as  "En  Jacob,"  a  very  popular  book  for 
the  study  of  Tahnudic  ethics. 

While  on  one  side  there  was  a  liberal  tendency 
manifest  in  Rabbinic  Judaism,  on  the  other  a  con- 
solidation of  the  Rabbinic  legalism  and  a  progress  of 
mysticism  were  noticeable.  Joseph  Caro  (1488-1575), 
a  native  of  Spain  who  toward  the  end  of  his  life  lived 
in  Safed,  Palestine,  compiled  a  brief  compendium  of 
the  Rabbinic  law,  "Shulhan  Aruk."  It  was  printed 
during  the  author's  lifetime  in  Venice  in  1564,  and 
often  reprinted  afterwards.  The  author  followed  the 
arrangement  of  the  legal  material  by  Jacob  ben  Asher, 
but  otherwise  is  quite  independent.  It  was  his  object 
to  give  the  whole  Rabbinic  law  in  one  volume,  without 
showing  its  development  and  without  regard  to  dif- 
ferent opinions.  He  prepared  himself  for  his  work 
by  writing  exhaustive  commentaries  on  the  codes  of 
Maimonides  and  Jacob  ben  Asher.  During  his  life- 
time the  book  was  annotated  by  Moses  Isserles  of  Cra- 
cow (1520-1572),  who  called  his  notes  "Mappah" 
(tablecloth).  It  was  his  object  to  lay  down  the  prac- 
tice of  the  German  Jews,  neglected  by  Joseph  Caro  as 
a  rule.  This  codification  was  strongly  attacked  by 
some  of  the  more  liberal  rabbis  of  the  time.  Solomon 
Luria  (1500-1573),  rabbi  of  Lublin,  but  of  German 
descent,  took  a  more  critical  view  of  the  old  sources, 
although  apart  from  legal  decisions  he  proclaimed  his 
absolute  faith  in  traditions  and  condemned  the  liberal 
tendencies  of  Abraham  ibn  Esra  and  Maimonides. 

A  strong  opponent  of  Azariah  Dei  Rossi  was  Loewe 
Ben  Bezalel  (1530-1609),  rabbi  of  Posen  and  Prague 


96  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

and  the  hero  of  many  legends.  He  maintained  the  ab- 
solute belief  in  Rabbinic  authority  in  every  respect. 
In  spite  of  occasional  opposition  the  "Shulhan  Aruk" 
soon  attained  general  popularity  and  was  considered 
an  authoritative  book,  to  which  many  prominent 
rabbis,  as  Abraham  Combiner,  Sabbatai  Cohen  (died 
1663)  and  David  Halevi  (died  1667)  added  their 
glosses.  These  were  in  the  later  editions  added  to  the 
"Shulhan  Aruk,"  the  authority  of  which  is  indicated 
by  the  fact  that  the  glossarists  are  called  "Aharonim" 
(epigones). 

The  sufferings  which  Jews  had  to  endure  during  the 
fifteenth  century  and  of  which  the  expulsion  from 
Spain  and  Portugal  was  the  culmination,  were  the 
cause  of  a  strengthening  of  mysticism.  Particularly 
in  Palestine,  to  which  quite  a  number  of  Spanish  Jews 
were  drawn  by  Messianic  hopes,  such  a  center  was 
formed.  In  Safed,  where  Joseph  Caro  wrote  his  "Shul- 
han Aruk,"  a  number  of  disciples  gathered  around 
Isaac  Luria  (1535-1572),  who  preached  a  religion 
based  on  the  belief  in  the  mysterious.  He  did  not 
write,  but  numerous  disciples  put  his  ideas  in  writ- 
ing. Among  them  were  Hayyim  Vital  (1543-1620), 
who  was  considered  a  worker  of  miracles,  and  Elijah 
de  Vidas,  whose  work,  "The  Beginning  of  Wisdom," 
became  a  favorite  book  for  edification.  Another  Kab- 
balistic  author  of  the  same  circle  was  Solomon  Halevi 
Alkabez,  best  known  by  his  popular  Sabbath  hymn, 
"Lekah  Dodi,"  which  also  has  a  Kabbalistic  tendency. 

Cerman  Jews  came  to  Palestine  to  join  the  circle 
of  mystics.  One  was  Isaiah  Horowitz  (1550-1630), 
who  had  been   rabbi  of   Frankfort-on-the-Main  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  97 

Prague.  Of  his  works  a  large  Kabbalistic  compen- 
dium, "The  Two  Tablets  of  the  Covenant"  (Shelah), 
became  very  popular.  Abstracts  of  it  were  made  and 
translated  into  Judaeo-German.  Even  in  Italy,  where 
secular  culture  was  far  more  general  among  Jews 
than  in  any  other  country  in  Europe,  Kabbala  had  a 
strong  hold  on  the  people.  A  great  enthusiast  for 
the  doctrine  of  mysticism  was  Moses  Hayyim  Luzzatto 
(1707-1747),  who  wrote  allegorical  dramas  in  Hebrew, 
one  of  which,  "Praise  to  the  Righteous,"  is  a  mas- 
terpiece of  modern  Hebrew  literature.  His  ethical 
treatise,  "The  Path  of  the  Righteous,"  is  also  de- 
servedly popular.  He  went  to  Palestine  hoping  to  re- 
ceive prophetic  inspiration  there,  and  died  at  the  age 
of  forty  of  the  plague. 

Talmudic  literature  monopolized  the  activities  of 
the  German  and  Polish  Jews,  the  latter  being  con- 
sidered the  leaders  in  this  line  and  filling  most  of 
the  Rabbinic  positions  in  Western  Europe  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Among  the 
most  prominent  dialecticians  may  be  mentioned  Jacob 
Joshua  of  Lemberg  (1680-1756),  rabbi  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main,  Aryeh  Loeb  of  Minsk,  rabbi  of  Metz 
(1700-1786),  Ezekiel  Landau  (1713-1793),  rabbi  of 
Prague,  and  Jonathan  Eybeschuetz  (1690-1764),  rabbi 
of  Metz  and  Altona,  whose  works  show  the  highest 
development  in  this  branch.  Already  in  the  eight- 
eenth century  a  sounder  development  of  Rabbinic 
studies,  showing  the  beginnings  of  criticism  and  an 
interest  in  historical  and  archaeological  questions, 
began. 

Among  those  who  led  to  the  scientific  presentation 


98  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

of  Rabbinic  literature  in  modern  times  are  to  be  men- 
tioned Jair  Hayyim  Bacharach  (1634-1702),  rabbi  of 
Worms,  of  whose  works  very  little  has  been  preserved 
but  who  was  interested  in  the  scientific  presentation 
of  Rabbinic  theology  as  the  theory  of  oral  tradition, 
and  Jacob  Emden  (1696-1776),  the  bitter  opponent  of 
Jonathan  Eybeschuetz,  who  gathered  historical  mate- 
rial on  Sabbatai  Zebi,  and  the  mystics  who  followed 
him  and  had  the  boldness,  although  a  believer  in  Kab- 
bala,  to  state  that  the  Zohar,  as  we  possess  it,  is  not 
the  work  of  Simeon  ben  Johai.  An  emancipation  from 
the  strict  Rabbinic  dialectics  by  better  attention  to 
correct  Rabbinic  texts  and  to  the  study  of  philological 
and  archaeological  questions  is  found  in  the  works  of 
Joseph  Steinhart  (1706-1776),  rabbi  of  Fuerth,  Isaiah 
Pick  (1720-1799),  and  Elijah  of  Wilna  (1720-1797). 
Hayyim  Joseph  David  Azulai,  born  in  Jerusalem  1724, 
died  in  Leghorn  1806,  did  meritorious  work  in  gather- 
ing historical  material  from  Rabbinic  literature. 

The  sufferings  of  the  Jews  in  Spain  stimulated  in- 
terest in  historical  literature  and  various  authors, 
chiefly  prompted  by  a  desire  to  keep  up  the  courage  of 
the  Jews  in  the  midst  of  persecutions,  wrote  historical 
works.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  Gedaliah  ibn 
Yahya,  an  Italian  who  wrote  the  "Chain  of  Tradi- 
tion," Solomon  ibn  Verga,  a  Spaniard  who  emigrated 
to  Turkey  and  wrote  "Shebet  Jehudah,"  Joseph  Cohen 
of  Avignon,  who  wrote  "The  Valley  of  Weeping," 
and  Samuel  Usque,  who  wrote  a  work  in  Portuguese 
called  "Consolations  in  Tribulation,"  all  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  Somewhat  la.ter  David  Cans  (died  at 
Prague  in  1617)  wrote  a  dry  compilation  of  events  in 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  99 

Jewish   and   general   history   under  the   title   "Zeniah 
David." 

To  the  seventeenth  century  belongs  the  Oriental, 
David  Conforte,  his  "Kore  Iladorot"  being  chiefly 
valued  for  its  accounts  of  Rabbinic  literature  in  the 
Orient.  Jehiel  Heilprin  of  Minsk,  eighteenth  century, 
wrote  a  history  in  the  style  of  a  chronicle,  beginning 
with  Creation.  It  shows  a  naive  belief  in  the  historic- 
ity of  the  Midrash  but  is  very  valuable  by  reason  of 
its  collection  of  historic  passages  from  Rabbinic  litera- 
ture. Secular  education  was  slowly  beginning  to  find 
its  way  among  the  Jews.  Quite  a  number  of  German 
Jews  studied  medicine  in  Italy,  chiefly  from  a  practi- 
cal point  of  view.  Tobias  Cohen  of  Metz  (1652-1729) 
studied  in  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  being  supported  by 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  In  his  later  years  he 
lived  in  the  Orient,  where  he  wrote  a  compilation  on 
various  scientific  subjects,  "Maaseh  Tobiyah."  In  this 
he  shows  sound  knowledge  of  medicine. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   PERIOD   OF   EMANCIPATION   FROM    1791 

In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  slow  but 
marked  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Jews  is 
noticeable.  This  change  was  due  to  the  activity  of 
the  most  enlightened  authors  which  already  began  at 
the  time  of  the  readmission  of  the  Jews  into  England. 
Roger  Williams  (1605-1683),  a  Baptist  minister,  who 
became  the  founder  of  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island, 
pleads  in  "The  Bloody  Tenent  of  Persecution"  (1644) 
for  a  better  treatment  of  the  Jews,  who,  he  said,  were 
not  as  bad  as  popular  prejudice  presents  them.  Sir 
John  Locke  (1632-1704),  in  his  "Letters  Concerning 
Toleration"  (1689),  demands  that  "neither  Pagan  nor 
Mahometan  nor  Jew  ought  to  be  excluded  from  the 
civil  rights  of  the  commonwealth."  He  embodied  the 
equality  of  rights  for  the  Jews  also  in  the  constitution 
of  the  colony  of  Carolina,  which  he  drafted  (1697). 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  (1712-1778),  in  his  "Emile" 
(1762),  which  was  one  of  the  most  popular  books  of 
this  period,  demands  full  freedom  for  the  Jewish  re- 
ligion and  condemns  conversion  to  Christianity  by  com- 
pulsion and  seduction.  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing 
(1729-1781)  had  already  in  1749,  in  his  play  "The 
Jews,"  presented  a  Jew  as  a  noble  character,  but  in  his 
drama  "Nathan  the  Wise"  (1778),  which  is  a  plea  for 

100 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  101 

religious  toleration,  the  Jew  is  presented  as  the  noblest 
character  and  contrasted  with  narrow-minded  Chris- 
tians and  Mohammedans.  Another  play  of  a  similar 
tendency  was  "The  Jew,"  by  Richard  Cumberland 
(1794),  which  became  very  popular,  was  often  pro- 
duced and  was  translated  in  various  languages. 

To  some  extent  this  change  of  sentiment  is  due  to 
the  change  in  the  economic  life  of  the  Jews,  many  of 
whom  were  engaged  in  manufacturing  pursuits  and 
in  such  mercantile  enterprises  as  were  of  noticeable 
benefit  to  the  state.  Some  Jews  were  farmers  of  the 
tobacco  monopoly,  in  many  states  an  important  part 
of  the  revenue,  others  engaged  in  various  manufactur- 
ing enterprises  and  thus  received  privileges  which  ex- 
empted them  from  the  disabilities  imposed  on  other 
Jews.  This  was  the  case  in  Prussia,  where  Jewish  en- 
terprise created  the  flourishing  textile  industry  in  and 
near  Berlin.  One  of  these  manufacturers  was  Bern- 
hard  Isaac,  in  whose  house  Moses  Mendelssohn  lived 
first  as  tutor  and  then  as  bookkeeper.  Frederick  the 
Great  (1740-1786)  gave  to  some  Jews  the  same  rights 
as  Christian  merchants,  although  he  was  in  general  not 
well  disposed  toward  the  Jews,  and  would  not  allow 
them  to  engage  in  agriculture  or  shipbuilding.  Aaron 
Elias  Seligmann  established  a  large  tobacco  manu- 
factory in  Laimen,  Bavaria,  in  1779,  which  gave  occu- 
pation to  many  hands ;  for  his  merit  in  developing  in- 
dustry the  King  of  Bavaria  bestowed  a  baronetcy  on 
him  in  1814.  Israel  Honig  was  farmer  of  the  tobacco 
monopoly  in  Austria,  and  was  in  1789  knighted  by 
Emperor  Joseph  II. 

The  distinctions  bestowed  on  individual  Jews,  how- 


102  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

ever,  did  not  improve  the  condition  of  the  masses. 
The  progress  of  liberal  ideas  made  this  question  a 
matter  of  serious  concern  for  legislators.  In  England 
a  bill  giving  the  Jews  political  rights  was  passed  in 
1753,  but  aroused  such  opposition  among  the  populace 
that  the  government  found  itself  compelled  to  repeal 
it  in  the  same  year.  Of  more  permanent  value  were 
the  measures  of  the  humane  Joseph  II  of  Austria 
(1780-1790).  In  various  legislative  acts,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  so-called  "Toleranz-Edict"  of  January  2, 
1782,  he  laid  down  the  principle  that  the  Jews  should 
be  treated  like  human  beings.  Although  they  were 
still  under  considerable  restrictions,  their  lot  was  in 
many  ways  improved,  and  the  Emperor  laid  special 
stress  on  their  education.  As  a  tangible  evidence  of 
the  improvement  in  their  condition  the  abrogation  of 
the  poll  tax,  "Leibzoll,"  the  Jew  badge  and  Jew  taxes 
may  be  noted.  The  abolition  of  these  mediaeval  dis- 
criminations, which  were  based  on  the  principle  that 
the  Jew  was  a  foreign  and  injurious  element  of  the 
population,  became  more  and  more  general  by  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century. 

France  abolished  the  poll  tax  in  1784.  As  early  as 
1781  the  Academy  of  Metz  offered  a  prize  for  the  best 
essay  on  the  improvement  of  the  Jews,  The  first  prize 
was  won  by  Abbe  Gregoire  (1750-1831),  a  Catholic 
priest,  who  advocated  the  abrogation  of  all  Jewish 
disabilities.  About  the  same  time  Christian  F.  Dohm, 
an  official  in  the  Prussian  war  department,  wrote  an 
essay  on  the  civil  improvement  of  the  Jews  (1781), 
in  which  he  likewise  advocated  the  granting  of  full 
equality  to  the  Jews.     This  principle  became  for  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  103 

first  time  a  fact  when  on  September  27,  1791,  the 
French  National  Assembly  passed  a  bill  giving  the 
Jews  full  civic  and  political  equality  with  other  citizens. 

When  the  French  rule  spread  over  adjacent  coun- 
tries this  was  everywhere  adopted.  Such  was  the  case 
in  Holland  in  1796,  and  in  all  parts  of  Germany  which 
directly  or  indirectly  came  under  French  influence. 
In  Cologne,  where  for  nearly  four  hundred  years  no 
Jew  had  been  permitted  to  reside,  Jews  began  to  set- 
tle in  1798.  In  Mayence  the  population  tore  down 
the  gates  of  the  ghetto  in  1798,  and  this  was  done  in 
Rome  when  the  French  ruled  there. 

The  French  invasion  of  Italy  in  1796  brought  great 
relief  to  the  Jews,  especially  in  the  papal  states,  where 
they  lived  under  the  most  cruel  oppression.  In  Rome 
and  other  papal  cities  the  gates  of  the  ghetto  were  torn 
down  and  the  Jews  admitted  to  public  offices.  With 
the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops  in  1799,  the  old 
order  was  restored.  Mobs,  enraged  against  the  for- 
eign rule,  attacked  the  Jews  in  various  cities.  The 
most  serious  riot  occurred  in  Siena,  where  nineteen 
Jews  were  murdered,  some  of  them  being  burned 
alive,  June  28,  1799. 

In  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  where  the  Jews  labored 
under  cruel  discriminations,  their  condition  was  con- 
siderably improved  in  1807  by  an  edict  of  the  Grand 
Duke,  Baron  von  Dahlberg,  and  in  1811  they  were 
given  full  civil  equality.  Even  reactionary  countries 
like  Prussia  could  not  resist  the  current  of  the  time, 
and  the  edict  of  March  11,  1812,  declared  the  Jews 
to  be  citizens,  gave  them  freedom  of  residence  and 
occupation  and  the  right  to  professorships  in  the  uni- 


104  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

versities ;  and  although  it  withheld  from  them  political 
rights,  it  promised  to  grant  them  such  in  the  future. 

Jews  have  been  drafted  into  the  army  in  Austria 
since  1787,  and  in  Prussia  since  1812;  but  numerous 
Jews  joined  the  army  as  volunteers  and  distinguished 
themselves  by  acts  of  bravery  during  the  wars  of 
liberation.  In  1809  the  Austrian  Jew,  Anton  Honig, 
was  made  lieutenant  for  bravery  on  the  battlefield  of 
Aspern,  and  a  few  years  afterwards  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  captain.  In  Prussia  several  Jews  were 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  officers  during  the  Napoleonic 
wars. 

Meantime  reaction  began  to  set  in.  Napoleon,  who 
as  commander  of  the  army  in  the  Orient  in  1798,  had 
called  upon  the  Jews  to  join  his  army  and  conquer 
Palestine,  changed  his  policy.  Moved  by  complaints 
against  the  business  methods  of  the  Jews,  he  called  an 
assembly  of  Jewish  notables  in  1806  and  laid  before 
them  twelve  questions,  including  whether  the  Jews 
considered  themselves  Frenchmen,  whether  their  law 
permitted  them  to  take  usurious  interest  from  non- 
Jews  and  whether  intermarriage  with  Christians  would 
be  permitted.  The  answers  given  by  this  body  of 
men  were  satisfactory,  and  the  Emperor  in  1807  estab- 
lished a  Sanhedrin  to  ratify  these  principles  and  form 
a  supreme  ecclesiastic  authority  for  all  the  Jews  of  the 
world.  While  thus  apparently  showing  favor  to  the 
Jews,  he  issued  a  law  in  1808  which  imposed  some 
restrictions  on  the  freedom  of  trade  of  the  Jews  of 
Alsace.  With  his  downfall,  hovv-ever,  a  general  reac- 
tion set  in.  Some  states  repealed  the  laws  which  had 
given  full  freedom  to  the  Jews,  while  others,  among 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  105 

them  Prussia,  limited  the  efficacy  of  these  laws  by 

.interpretation. 

1  In  Rome,  where  the  rule  of  the  Pope  was  reinstated, 
all  oppressive  measures  were  put  in  force  again.  In 
Hamburg  and  Luebeck,  where  during  the  French 
rule  the  Jews  had  enjoyed  full  equality,  the  former 
restrictions  were  partly  reintroduced.  From  Luebeck 
the  Jews  were  unconditionally  expelled  in  1816.  In 
some  cities  of  Bavaria  attacks  on  the  Jews  were 
organized  by  the  mob  under  the  cry  of  "Hep-hep"  in 
1819,  and  an  article  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  of 
1815,  which  declared  that  the  Jews  should  retain  all 
the  rights  they  had  acquired  during  the  time  of  tran- 
sition, became  practically  a  dead  letter. 

The  July  Revolution  of  1830  strengthened  liberal 
ideas  and  brought  the  Jewish  question  up  for  discus- 
sion in  various  Parliaments,  particularly  in  Southern 
Germany.  In  Baden  and  Bavaria  the  petition  for  the 
improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  Jews  was  regu- 
larly met  with  the  demand  that  the  Jews  should  first 
show  their  willingness  to  assimilate  with  their  envi- 
ronment by  a  change  of  their  religious  beliefs  and 
practices.  Legislation  made  very  little  progress,  and 
in  some  instances  new  reactionary  measures  were  in- 
troduced. King  Frederick  William  III  of  Prussia  in 
1836  ordered  that  Jews  should  not  have  any  Christian 
names.  ,  The  decisive  change  came  about  after  the 
French  Revolution  in  1848. 

By  and  by  all  states  of  Western  Europe  recognized 
in  their  constitutions  the  full  civil  and  political  equal- 
ity of  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Parliaments  which  were 
elected  on  this  basis,  Jews  were  members.     Gabriel 


106  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Riesser  (1806-1864)  was  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of 
the  National  Assembly  in  Frankfort.  The  first  Aus- 
trian Parliament  had  five  Jewish  members  and  the 
Diet  of  Bavaria  two.  When  the  storm  passed  away,  a 
reactionary  spirit  again  took  hold,  although  the  liber- 
ties granted  to  the  Jews  were  not  entirely  repealed. 
Some  countries  like  Austria  suspended  the  constitu- 
tion, while  others  like  Prussia  interpreted  it  in  a  sense 
which  rendered  nugatory  some  of  the  rights  given 
to  the  Jews  in  theory.  This,  however,  was  mostly 
the  case  with  regard  to  the  right  of  holding  official 
positions.  Civic  equality  and  the  right  to  vote  at 
elections  and  hold  elective  offices  remained  uncon- 
tested. 

Finally  toward  the  end  of  the  sixties  even  these 
disabilities  were  removed.  The  Austrian  constitution 
of  1867  granted  to  the  Jews  unrestricted  equality. 
The  law  of  the  North  J^erman  Federation  of  July  3, 

1869,  declared  that  every  state  must  remove  all  dis- 
abilities imposed  upon  citizens  on  the  ground  of  their 
religious  belief.  This  law  was  embodied  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  German  Empire  in  1871.  Sweden, 
which  had  admitted  the  Jews  only  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  in  1838  still  restricted  their 
residence  to  four  cities,  granted  them  full  equality  in 

1870.  Switzerland,  while  a  republic,  had  for  a  long 
time  restricted  the  Jews  to  two  places  in  the  Canton 
of  Aargau.  Not  until  1878  were  they  given  full 
equality  with  other  citizens.  Norway  had,  until  1851, 
a  law  on  its  statute-book  which  prohibited  even  the 
temporary  residence  of  Jews  in  the  country. 

England  made  slow  but  steady  progress.     In  1830 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  107 

the  first  attempt  was  made  to  give  the  Jews  political 
rights,  a  year  previously  the  disabilities  imposed  on 
Christian  dissenters  having  been  removed.  In  1833 
Francis  H.  Goldsmid  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  in 
1835  David  Solomons  was  elected  sheriff  of  London 
and  Middlesex,  the  first  municipal  office  held  by  a 
Jew.  In  1845  he  was  elected  alderman  and  in  1855 
Lord  Mgyor  of  the  city  of  London.  The  entrance  of 
Jews  to  Parliament  was  opposed  with  great  vehemence 
by  the  Conservative  Party.  In  1847  Baron  Lionel  de 
Rothschild  was  elected  to  Parliament,  but  could  not 
take  his  seat  because  the  prescribed  oath  contained 
"upon  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian."  Not  until  1858 
was  a  bill  passed  which  allowed  a  Jew  to  omit  these 
words  from  the  oath.:  His  son,  Baron  Nathaniel  de 
Rothschild  (1840-1915),  was  in  1885  admitted  as  the 
first  Jew  to  the  House  of  Lords. 

Only  in  the  East  of  Europe  restrictions  continued. 
Czar  Alexander  I  in  1804  issued  a  law  which  encour- 
aged the  Jews  to  take  up  agricultural  pursuits  and 
acquire  secular  knowledge.  This  step  was  isolated, 
and  in  the  reign  of  Nicholas  I  (1825-1855)  the  Jews 
were  subjected  to  terrible  persecutions,  the  worst  of 
which  was  that  children  were  forcibly  taken  from  the 
houses  of  their  parents  and  brought  up  in  barracks 
as  soldiers  to  serve  twenty-five  years  after  they  had 
reached  the  age  required  for  the  army.  Under  Alex- 
ander II  (1855-1881)  a  slow  improvement  in  excep- 
tional cases  took  place.  Jews  who  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing or  business  enterprises,  skilled  mechanics 
and  those  who  had  received  a  college  education,  were 
exempt  from  most  of  the  disabilities  imposed  on  the 


108  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

masses,  but  the  condition  of  the  latter  was  not 
changed.  They  were  still  restricted  in  their  rights  of 
residence  and  occupation  and  excluded  from  all  po- 
litical rights. 

With  the  assassination  of  Alexander  H  a  new  era  of 
persecutions  began.  This  culminated  in  bloody  riots, 
which  spread  over  a  great  part  of  Southern  Russia  and 
were  periodically  repeated  afterwards.  The  bloodiest 
persecutions  were  those  of  Kishinelif  and  Homel  in 
1903,  and  of  Odessa  and  a  great  many  other  cities  in 
Southern  Russia  in  1905,  and  of  Bialystok  in  1906, 
when  more  than  a  thousand  people  lost  their  lives. 
Even  further  restrictions  were  introduced.  Thus  a 
law  of  May  3,  1882,  prohibited  the  residence  of  Jews 
in  rural  districts  and  the  acquisition  of  rural  estates, 
and  while  in  former  times  the  acquisition  of  secular 
knowledge  by  Jews  was  encouraged  by  the  govern- 
ment, laws  of  December  5,  1886,  and  July  6,  1887, 
restricted  the  attendance  of  Jewish  students  at  high 
schools  and  universities  to  a  percentage  ranging  from 
three  to  ten.  While  the  Jews  obtained  the  right  to 
participate  in  the  elections  of  the  Duma,  the  Imperial 
Parliament,  they  had  no  right  to  participate  in  mu- 
nicipal elections  and  were  represented  in  the  munici- 
pal boards  only  by  a  few  members  who  were  appointed 
by  the  government.  They  were  also  excluded  from 
the  county  boards,  Zemstvo. 

A  sudden  change  took  place  when,  owing  to  Russia's 
defeat  in  the  World  War,  Czar  Nicholas  II  was  forced 
to  abdicate  his  throne  (March  15,  1917).  A  pro- 
visional government  repealed,  all  legal  restrictions  on 
the  Jews,  April  4.    This  revolutionary  government  was 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  109 

soon  overthrown  by  the  radical  government  of  the 
, Bolsheviki  (November  8,  1917),  in  which  the  Jew, 
Leon  Trotzky,  took  a  prominent  part,  first  as  Minister 
of  Foreign  Afifairs  and  afterward  as  Minister  of  War. 
Another  Jew,  Adolph  Joffe,  was  representative  of  the 
Russian  government  at  the  peace  negotiations  at 
Brest-Litovsk,  where  Russia  concluded  peace  with 
Germany,  February  11,  1918.  The  complete  defeat 
of  the  Central  Powers,  which  led  to  the  re-establish- 
ment of  an  independent  Poland  and  the  establishment 
of  other  new  states  in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe, 
created  chaotic  conditions  in  the  territory  of  the  former 
Russian  empire  and  in  that  part  of  Poland  which  was 
formerly  under  Austrian  rule.  With  the  collapse  of 
the  latter,  the  fury  of  an  unbridled  mob  turned  against 
the  Jews,  and  in  Lemberg,  in  the  course  of  a  pogrom 
which  lasted  three  days  (November  21-23,  1918), 
sixty-four  people  were  murdered.  Similar  excesses 
were  committed  in  many  other  places,  the  most  atro- 
cious being  the  shooting  of  thirty-five  Jews  who  were 
peacefully  assembled  in  a  meeting,  deliberating  on  a 
charitable  action,  in  Pinsk,  April  5,  1919,  by  the  order 
of  an  officer  in  the  regular  Polish  army.  The  govern- 
ments of  the  United  States  and  of  Great  Britain  sent 
commissions,  the  former  headed  by  Henry  Morgenthau 
and  the  latter  by  Sir  Stuart  Samuel,  to  investigate  the 
situation,  and  the  sad  facts  were  confirmed  beyond  any 
doubt,  thus  disposing  of  the  claim  of  the  Polish  gov- 
ernment that  the  victims  were  killed  for  an  attempt 
to  establish  a  Bolshevik  rule. 

The  charge  of  sympathy  with  Bolshevik  tendencies 
served  as  a  pretext  for  atrocities  committed  in  the 


110  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Ukraine,  the  territory  which  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, at  the  time  of  the  Chmelnicki  rebellion,  had  been 
the  scene  of  a  terrible  slaughter.  Here  the  fight  be- 
tween various  contending  forces,  the  Russians,  Poles 
and  the  Ukrainians,  established  governments  which 
followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession  and  each 
change  was  accompanied  by  massacres  of  the  helpless 
Jews.  The  victims  killed  number  over  one  hundred 
thousand. 

The  Treaty  of  Versailles,  which  established  an  inde- 
pendent Poland  (June  28,  1919),  contains  a  clause 
protecting  the  rights  of  the  Jews  and  other  minorities 
but  it  has  so  far  remained  a  dead  letter. 

When  Rumania  gained  its  autonomy  in  1856,  it  not 
only  denied  to  the  Jews  political  rights  but  declared 
them  to  be  foreigners.  Frequent  mob  attacks  and  ar- 
bitrary treatment  on  the  part  of  the  courts  and  the 
officials  made  them  practically  outlaws.  A  hope  for 
improvement  seemed  to  loom  up  when  in  1878  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  embodied  an  article  in  the  treaty 
which  compelled  the  newly  founded  sovereign  and 
autonomous  states  of  Serbia,  Bulgaria  and  Rumania 
to  remove  from  their  statute-books  all  laws  discriminat- 
ing against  citizens  on  the  ground  of  religious  belief. 
They  complied  with  this  requirement,  but  Rumania 
availed  itself  of  a  ruse  by  which  the  law  was  practi- 
cally rendered  nugatory.  By  declaring  the  Jews  to  be 
foreigners,  and  naturalizing  some  Jews,  it  apparently 
complied  with  the  law,  while  almost  all  the  250,000 
Jews  of  the  country  remained  in  their  former  state 
of  misery,  enhanced  by  new  regulations  restricting 
their  economic  freedom.     After  the  World  War  Ru- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  111 

mania  received  large  territorial  accessions.  The 
treaty  signed  December  10,  1919,  imposed  upon  her 
the  duty  to  recognize  all  Jews  in  the  annexed  terri- 
tories, who  did  not  claim  foreign  citizenship,  as  Ru- 
manian citizens  and  to  grant  to  them,  as  well  as  to 
those  living  in  her  former  territory,  full  equality. 

It  looked  in  1878  as  if  Europe  had  guaranteed  the 
fair  treatment  of  the  Jews  even  in  countries  of  oppres- 
sion; opposition  began  in  popular  ranks,  and  in  the 
same  year  anti-Semitism  arose  as  a  new  name  for 
hostility  toward  the  Jews.  This  first  made  itself  felt 
in  Germany  through  the  foundation  of  the  Christian 
Socialist  party  in  1878,  started  with  the  avowed  object 
of  withdrawing  from  the  Jews  their  political  rights, 
including  that  of  holding  public  office  and  advocating 
the  prohibition  of  the  immigration  of  Jews. 

From  Germany  the  movement  spread  to  Austria, 
where  it  first  was  taken  up  by  the  radical  German 
party  in  1883,  and  later  on  by  the  clericals.  It  spread 
then  to  Hungary  and  France,  where  the  publication 
of  Drumont's  "La  France  Juive"  in  1886  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  movement  culminating  in  the  Drey- 
fus case.  Captain  Alfred  Dreyfus  in  1894  was  charged 
with  high  treason  in  order  to  stir  up  anti-Jewish  feel- 
ing, and  this  was  not  abated  until  his  innocence  had 
finally  been  established  in  1906.  After  the  World  War 
the  political  excitement,  both  in  the  victorious  and  in 
the  defeated  countries,  led  to  renewed  hostilities 
against  the  Jews.  Prominent  English  papers  charged 
the  Jews  with  responsibility  for  the  success  of  the 
Bolshevist  government  in  Russia  and  with  sympathy 
for  all  destructive  policies.    In  Germany  and  Austria 


112  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

the  anti-Semitic  movement  gained  in  strength,  espe- 
cially when  the  short-lived  communist  government  in 
Bavaria,  led  by  the  Jew,  Kurt  Eisner,  collapsed.  Eis- 
ner was  assassinated  by  Count  Arco-Valle,  on  his 
mother's  side  of  Jewish  descent  (February  21,1919), 
who  openly  boasted  in  the  court  that  he  hated  the 
Jews.  In  Hungary,  where  the  Jews,  up  to  the  end  of 
the  war  had  held  very  high  positions,  one  of  them, 
William  Vaszony,  having  been  Minister  of  Justice, 
the  defeat  in  the  war  and  the  provocation  at  the  com- 
munist government  in  which  some  Jews  took  prom- 
inent part,  led  to  atrocities  which  equal  those  of  the 
Ukraine. 

Another  sign  of  an  unfavorable  change  in  the  atti- 
tude of  the  masses  toward  the  Jews  was  the  revival  of 
the  blood  accusation.  When  in  1840  it  made  its 
appearance  in  Damascus,  where  Jews  were  impris- 
oned and  tortured  for  this  cause,  it  seemed  that  such 
a  return  to  mediaeval  barbarism  was  confined  to  the 
Orient.  The  atrocities  committed  in  Damascus  aroused 
public  sentiment  all  over  Europe  and  America.  The 
British  philanthropist,  Moses  Montefiore  (1784-1885), 
accompanied  by  the  French  statesman,  Adolph  Cre- 
mieux  (1796-1880),  went  to  the  Orient  to  make  an  in- 
vestigation on  the  spot,  and  laying  the  evidence  of  the 
innocence  of  the  accused  Jews  before  the  Sultan,  ob- 
tained from  him  a  firman  declaring  that  the  accusation 
was  entirely  groundless.  It  was  supposed  that  this  evi- 
dence would  dispose  of  ritual  murder  charges  forever, 
but  the  revival  of  anti-Semitism  in  1878  led  to  a  re- 
newal of  this  medieval  slander.  A  sensational  case 
occurred  in  1882  in  Tisa-Eszlar,  Hungary,  and  other 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  113 

cases  followed  in  Western  Europe.  At  Xanten,  Ger- 
many, in  1891,  at  Konitz  in  1899,  and  at  Polna,  Bo- 
hemia, in  1900.  An  international  sensation  was  cre- 
ated by  a  similar  charge  against  Mendel  Beilis  in 
Kiev,  Russia,  who  was  kept  in  prison  for  nearly  three 
years  under  the  charge  that  he  had  killed  a  Christian 
boy  who  had  been  found  murdered  on  March  25,  1911. 
Beilis  was  acquitted  November  10,  1913,  but  found  it 
necessary  to  leave  the  country  on  account  of  the  hos- 
tility of  the  anti-Semites  whose  scheme  the  trial  had 
spoiled.  The  blood-accusation  found  support  by  some 
religious  fanatics,  among  them  the  Catholic  theologian 
August  Rohling  (born  1839),  who  already  in  1871 
had  appeared  in  the  literary  campaign  of  anti-Semitism 
with  a  pamphlet  "The  Talmud  Jew,"  and  who  was 
assisted  by  some  apostate  Jews  like  Aaron  Briman 
and  Paulus  Meyer,  both  afterward  sentenced  to  prison 
as  common  criminals.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
learned  Christian  theologians,  like  Franz  Delitzsch 
(1815-1890)  and  Herman  L.  Strack  (born  1848), 
both  great  scholars  in  rabbinic  literature  and  devout 
Christians,  nobly  defended  the  Jewish  cause. 

The  disappointment  caused  by  the  unlooked-for 
reaction  manifested  itself  also  in  the  attitude  of  the 
Jews  with  regard  to  their  future.  Soon  after  it  had 
become  evident  that  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in 
Rumania  would  not  be  improved  by  the  Treaty  of 
Berlin,  and  after  the  bloody  persecutions  in  Russia 
had  destroyed  the  hope  that  Russia  would  slowly  im- 
prove the  condition  of  its  Jews,  a  movement  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine  began.  In  1882 
the  foundation  of  a  society,  "Lovers  of  Zion,"  marked 


114  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

the  beginning  of  a  movement  looking  toward  the 
resettlement  of  the  Jews  in  Palestine. 

The  same  work  had  been  attempted  on  strictly  phil- 
anthropic lines  by  Sir  Moses  Montefiore  who,  desir- 
ous of  raising  the  economic  conditions  of  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews  who  for  centuries  had  been  existing  al- 
most exclusively  on  charitable  gifts  sent  by  their 
brethren  from  abroad  (Halukah),  tried  to  create 
means  which  would  make  them  self-supporting.  The 
new  movement,  however,  aimed  at  the  creation  of  a 
land  which  the  Jewish  people  could  call  their  home. 
This  idea  was  advocated  by  the  Russian  physician, 
Leon  Pinsker  (1821-1891),  in  his  pamphlet  "Auto- 
Emancipation"  (1882),  published  after  the  Russian 
pogroms  of  that  year.  It  assumed  more  systematic 
shape  by  the  publication  of  "Der  Judenstaat,"  by 
Theodor  Herzl  (1860-1904)  in  1896,  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  1897  by  the  first  Congress  of  Zionists  con- 
vened at  Basle,  which  declared  in  its  platform  the 
object  to  establish  "a  legally  secured  home  for  the 
Jewish  people  in  Palestine." 

The  execution  of  this  idea,  as  well  as  the  principle 
itself,  created  contending  parties  in  Judaism  opposing 
each  other  very  strongly.  One  section,  led  by  Israel 
Zangwill,  who  founded  the  Jewish  Territorial  Organi- 
zation, proposed  to  find  an  autonomous  territory  for 
the  Jews  outside  of  Palestine.  Others  again,  insisting 
on  Palestine  as  the  homeland,  intended  it  to  be  first  of 
all  a  home  for  Jewish  culture.  Their  spokesman  is 
Asher  Ginzberg  (born  1856  and  known  as  "Achad 
Ha-Am"),  whose  Hebrew  essays  entitled  "On  the 
Cross-Road"  (1889)  were  widely  read  and  translated 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  115 

into  various  languages.  Another  branch,  the  Mizrahi, 
established  in  1904,  stands  for  strict  orthodoxy.  The 
Poale  Zion,  again  subdivided  into  two  factions,  ignore 
the  religious  aspect  and  demand  the  establishment  of 
a  Jewish  homeland  on  strictly  socialistic  principles, 
while  probably  the  largest  section  of  Jewish  socialists 
oppose  Zionism  altogether  as  nationalistic  and  con- 
trary to  the  fundamental  ideas  of  socialism.  The 
strongest  opposition  came  from  those,  called  Assimila- 
tionists  by  their  opponents,  who  believe  that  the  only 
solution  of  the  Jewish  question  lies  in  obtaining  full 
recognition  of  the  Jews  as  citizens  in  their  various 
homelands. 

The  whole  situation,  which  seemed  merely  academic, 
assumed  a  different  aspect  when  Arthur  J.  Balfour, 
British  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  issued 
a  public  statement  (November  2,  1917)  which  declared 
that  the  British  government  "views  with  favor  the 
establishment  of  a  national  home  for  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple." This  statement  was  repeated  by  the  Council  of 
Allied  Nations  in  San  Remo  (April  24,  1920),  when 
the  mandate  over  Palestine  was  given  to  England,  and 
by  Sir  Herbert  Samuel  when  he  took  office  as  High 
Commissioner  of  Palestine,  in  the  manifesto  which  he 
read  in  Jerusalem  July  7,  1920. 

At  the  same  time  an  unprecedented  emigration  took 
place  from  Russia  and  Rumania  to  free  countries,  par- 
ticularly to  the  United  States,  Canada,  Australia  and 
South  Africa,  with  a  smaller  but  also  considerable 
stream  of  emigration  to  England. 

Baron  de  Hirsch  attempted  to  regulate  the  emigra- 
tion by  turning  it  to  Argentine,  where  he  acquired 


116  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

large  tracts  of  land  in  1890.  Indeed,  agricultural 
settlements  were  founded  there,  although  they  did  not 
realize  the  expectations  of  those  who  would  have 
turned  large  masses  of  immigrants  into  that  country. 
Many  of  the  colonists  drifted  into  the  large  cities, 
especially  to  Buenos  Aires,  and  the  agricultural  popu- 
lation remaining  in  the  colonies  may  be  estimated  as 
twenty-five  thousand. 

In  spite  of  the  retrogressive  movement  which  the 
history  of  the  Jews  seemed  to  present,  Western  Europe 
not  only  retained  the  principles  enacted  by  the  con- 
stitutions promulgated  in  and  after  1848,  but  individ- 
ual Jews  have  risen  to  prominence  in  political  life. 
Almost  all  states  of  Western  Europe  have  had  Jews 
as  members  of  their  Parliaments,  and  some  have  ob- 
tained prominent  positions  in  the  government  service. 
France  had  several  Jews  as  ministers.  Cremieux  was 
minister  of  justice  in  1848,  Godchaux  and  Achille 
Fould  served  under  Napoleon  III,  and  Raynal  under 
the  republic.  Lucien  L.  Klotz  was  in  1910  for  the  first 
time  minister  of  finance,  served  repeatedly  in  various 
cabinets  and  was  one  of  the  signatories  of  the  Peace 
Treaty  of  Versailles. 

In  Italy,  Leone  Wollemberg  was  once  and  Luigi 
Luzzatti  six  times  minister  of  finance,  and  Joseph  Ot- 
tolenghi  was  minister  of  war.  In  1910  Luzzatti  be- 
came premier.  He  served  again  as  minister  of  finance 
in  1920,  together  with  Ludovico  Mortara,  who  was 
minister  of  justice.  Holland  had  repeatedly  Jewish 
ministers,  and  England  saw  in  1909  the  first  Jew, 
Herbert  Samuel,  member  of. the  cabinet,  A  number 
of  others  have  served  in  cabinets  since,  among  them 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  117 

Rufus  Isaacs,  appointed  Lord  Chief  Justice  in  1913, 
High  Commissioner  and  Ambassador  of  England  to 
the  United  States  in  1918,  and  Viceroy  of  India  in 
1921. 

The  United  States  had  a  Jew  in  the  cabinet  in  the 
person  of  Oscar  S.  Straus,  Secretary  of  Commerce 
and  Labor  (1906-1909).  Moses  Alexander,  of  Idaho, 
was  the  first  Jew  elected  governor  of  a  state  (1914)  ; 
Louis  D.  Brandeis  the  first  Jew  appointed  to  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  United  States  (1916). 

In  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  Moritz  Ellstaetter 
was  minister  of  finance  (1868-1893).  The  reactionary 
influences  which  kept  Jews  from  prominent  positions 
in  the  German  government  ceased  with  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  German  republic  (1918).  Several  Jews 
have  since  held  positions  in  the  various  cabinets,  among 
them  Hugo  Preuss,  who  drafted  the  constitution  of 
the  republic,  and  Paul  Hirsch,  who  was  premier  of 
Prussia.  Quite  a  number  of  Jews  have  occupied  po- 
sitions as  judges,  as  professors  at  universities,  and  in 
other  public  activities.  They  are  too  numerous  to  men- 
tion, but  it  may  be  stated  that  at  least  seven  Jews 
have  been  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  work  in  science 
and  literature. 

CULTURE 

The  improvement  of  the  political  conditions  influ- 
enced the  intellectual  and  social  life  of  the  Jews  to  a 
considerable  degree.  This  is  noticeable  in  their  litera- 
ture, education,  religious  life  and  finally  in  their  com- 
munal organizations. 

Moses  Mendelssohn  (1729-1786),  of  Dessau,  came 
as  a  boy  to  Berlin.    After  a  youth  filled  with  hardship 


118  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

he  found  employment  in  the  house  of  a  manufacturer, 
first  as  tutor  and  then  as  bookkeeper.  His  main 
object  was  to  raise  Jews  from  their  intellectual  isola- 
tion. He  translated  the  Pentateuch,  the  Psalms  and 
some  smaller  books  of  the  Bible  into  correct  German, 
and  edited  this  work  with  a  Hebrew  commentary.  It 
soon  became  popular  and  was  the  medium  for  teach- 
ing the  young  people  the  German  language.  Its  popu- 
larity suggested  to  various  publishers  the  publication 
of  the  whole  Bible  in  the  same  style,  with  commenta- 
ries by  different  authors,  known  as  Biurists.  Through 
them  Mendelssohn  became,  though  not  a  teacher,  the 
founder  of  a  school.  He  also  defended"  Judaism 
against  various  attacks  and  presented  its  teaching  in 
a  German  work,  "Jerusalem."  In  his  work  on  the 
Bible,  he  was  assisted  by  various  co-workers,  among 
whom  the  most  prominent  is  Naphtali  Herz  Wesel, 
who  called  himself  Hartwig  Wessely  (1725-1805). 
The  latter's  epic  on  the  life  of  Moses,  patterned  on 
Klopstock's  "Messias,"  was  written  in  elegant  Hebrew 
verse,  and  became  an  inspiration  to  many  other  writers 
disgusted  with  the  obscure  and  artificial  style  of  Rab- 
binic Hebrew,  and  having  a  taste  for  literary  beauty. 
An  organ  for  such  endeavors  was  presented  by  the 
publication  of  the  first  Hebrew  magazine,  "Meassef" 
(1784). 

The  progress  of  secular  education  made  Hebrew 
literature  soon  disappear  in  Western  Europe,  but  the 
influence  of  Wessely  and  his  disciples  made  itself  very 
strongly  felt  in  the  East  of  Europe,  and  particularly 
in  the  countries  comprising  the  former  kingdom  of 
Poland.     Their  modern  Hebrew  writings  introduced 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  119 

the  young  men  to  the  knowledge  of  history  and  science, 
and  gave  them  a  taste  for  secular  education  and  for  a 
western  conception  of  life.  Isaac  Bar  Loewinson 
(1788-1860)  wrote  works  in  defense  of  Judaism,  and 
advocated  secular  culture,  patriotism,  manual  trades 
and  the  emancipation  from  mediaeval  conditions  still 
existing  in  these  countries.  Marcus  Aaron  Guenzburg 
(1795-1846)  worked  chiefly  as  translator  of  popular 
works,  such  as  juveniles  like  Campe's  German  adapta- 
tion of  "Robinson  Crusoe." 

A  more  independent  character  was  given  to  Hebrew 
literature  by  Abraham  Mapu  (1808-1867)  who  wrote 
two  novels  from  Biblical  life,  "The  Love  of  Zion,"  and 
"The  Guilt  of  Samaria,"  and  another  describing  the 
life  of  the  Jew  in  his  Lithuanian  home,  "The  Hypo- 
crite." Mapu  used  Biblical  Hebrew  with  great  facil- 
ity and  became  the  father  of  a  new  development  in 
Hebrew  and  later  in  Yiddish,  giving  to  Jewish  litera- 
ture a  high  literary  character.  He  was  followed  by 
Judah  Loeb  (Leon)  Gordon  (1833-1892),  whose  satir- 
ical poems  not  merely  possess  a  value  for  the  ease  with 
which  the  author  handled  the  Hebrew  language,  but 
have  been  a  great  force  impressing  upon  the  minds  of 
the  Jews  in  Eastern  Europe  the  defects  of  their  intel- 
lectual isolation  and  the  shortcomings  of  Rabbinic 
teachings.  Perez  Smolensky  (1842-1885)  was  the 
author  of  realistic  novels  and  popular  essays  written 
in  classic  Hebrew  and  one  of  his  essays,  "The  Ancient 
People,"  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  the  Zionist  move- 
ment. Among  the  later  poets  Chayim  Nachman  Bialik, 
born  1873,  is  the  most  popular.  His  elegy  on  the 
massacre  of  Kishineff  is  one  of  the  gems  of  modern 


120  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Hebrew  literature.  Lately  Saul  Tchemichowsky  and 
Zalman  Schneor  (born  1886)  have  won  great  popular- 
ity as  writers  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

Yiddish  literature  from  its  earliest  beginnings  in  the 
sixteenth  century  was  mostly  used  as  a  vehicle  for 
the  religious  instruction  of  women  and  people  of  little 
education  or  merely  adapted  and  translated  some  of 
the  popular  literature  of  the  countries  where  its  expo- 
nents lived.  From  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury it  commenced  to  assume  a  more  independent 
character  and  thus  secured  a  place  in  the  world's  his- 
tory as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  some  of  its  works 
were  translated  into  other  European  languages. 
Among  the  novelists  may  be  mentioned  Shalom  Jacob 
Abramowitsch  (1835-1917)  who  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym,  "Mendele  the  bookseller,"  Shalom  Rabin- 
owitsch  (1859-1916)  called  the  Mark  Twain  of  Yid- 
dish literature,  and,  the  most  popular  of  all,  Isaac  Loeb 
Peretz  (1851-1915).  A  poet  who  presents  the  tragic 
as  well  as  the  humorous  side  of  the  New  York  ghetto, 
Morris  Rosenfeld,  born  1864,  is  to  be  mentioned;  his 
works  have  been  translated  into  various  European 
languages.  Of  dramatists  whose  works  have  occa- 
sionally found  their  way  to  the  German  and  English 
stage  there  are  Shalom  Asch  (born  1881)  and  Jacob 
Gordin  (1853-1909).  Besides  these  may  be  mentioned 
David  Pinski  (born  1872),  Perez  Hirschbein  (born 
1880)  and  S.  Libin  (born  1872),  Hke  the  former, 
natives  of  Russia  and  living  in  America,  where  the 
Yiddish  stage,  owing  to  the  large  Jewish  population  in 
the  larger  cities,  found  the  greatest  opportunity  for 
development.      As   a   story   writer,   Abraham    Reisin 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  121 

(born  1875)  and  as  a  poet,  Solomon  Bloomgarden, 
known  by  his  pen  name  "Jehoash"  (born  1870),  have 
won  a  prominent  place  in  Yiddish  Hterature. 

The  disappearance  of  the  social  and  intellectual  iso- 
lation in  the  life  of  the  Jews  created  a  special  literature 
which  is  called  the  ghetto  novel.  This  deals  with  the 
life  of  the  Jews  in  the  era  of  transition  from  their 
isolation  to  modern  culture.  This  literature  began  in 
Germany  and  its  best  known  representatives  are 
Aaron  Bernstein,  (1812-1884),  Leopold  Kompert 
(1822-1886),  Karl  Emil  Franzos  (1848-1904),  and, 
among  Christians  who  view  the  life  of  the  Eastern 
Jews  with  sympathy,  Leopold  von  Sacher-Masoch 
(1835-1895)  and  Eliza  de  Orzeska  (1842-1910). 
Sketches  from  the  life  of  the  Alsatian  Jews  were  pre- 
sented in  French  by  Alexander  Weill  (1811-1898)  and 
in  Danish  by  Meier  Aaron  Goldschmidt  (1819-1887). 
In  the  English  language,  Israel  Zangwill,  born  1864, 
wrote  novels  dealing  with  the  life  of  the  foreign  Jews 
in  England.  Among  his  works  "The  Children  of  the 
Ghetto"  has  obtained  a  place  in  the  world's  best 
literature.  The  English  stories  of  Martha  Wolfen- 
stein  (1869-1906),  an  American  authoress,  deal  with 
the  life  of  European  Jews.  Another  American  author- 
ess, Emma  Lazarus  (1849-1887)  won  fame  as  a 
writer  of  poetry  and  as  essayist.  Some  of  her  poems 
treat  in  touching  tones  of  the  tragedy  of  the  Jewish 
immigrants  from  Russia  who,  in  her  last  years,  came 
to  the  United  States  in  large  numbers. 

The  Jewish  question  which  became  a  leading  topic 
in  public  life  through  the  anti-Semitic  movement, 
inspired    various    writers    to    treat   it    on    the    stage. 


122  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Theodore  Herzl  wrote  "The  New  Ghetto"  hi  German 
(1894),  Henri  Bernstein  the  drama  "Israel"  in  French 
(1908),  Arthur  Schnitzler  "Professor  Bernhardi" 
(1912).  The  World  War  inspired  the  dramas 
"Jacob's  Dream"  by  Richard  Beer  Hoffmann  (1918) 
and  "Jeremiah"  by  Stephen  Zweig  (1918).  The 
ritual  murder  trial  of  Tisa-Eszlar  was  presented  in 
dramatic  form  by  Arnold  Zweig  in  "Semael's  Mis- 
sion" (1918). 

A  place  in  modern  Jewish  literature  belongs  to  the 
Jewish  press  as  it  has  developed  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  first  Jewish  periodical  that  had  more  than 
an  ephemeral  existence  was  "Meassef,"  published  in 
Hebrew  with  some  parts  in  German.  It  began  to 
appear  in  1784,  and  with  some  interruptions  was  kept 
up  until  1810.  The  oldest  periodical  still  in  existence 
is  the  "Allgemeine  Zeitung  des  Judentums,"  begun 
by  Ludwig  Philippson,  rabbi  in  Magdeburg,  in  1837. 
It  was  followed  by  the  "Archives  Israelites"  in  1840 
in  Paris,  and  by  the  "Jewish  Chronicle"  in  1841  in 
London.  Of  the  numerous  periodicals  published  in 
the  United  States,  the  oldest  still  existing  is  the 
"American  Israelite,"  founded  by  Isaac  M.  Wise  in 
Cincinnati  in  1854. 

The  first  Hebrew  weekly,  which  dealt  not  only 
with  Jewish  affairs,  was  the  "Hamaggid,"  founded 
by  Lazarus  Silbermann  in  Lyck,  East  Prussia,  in 
1858.  The  first  Hebrew  daily  paper  was  the  "Haze- 
firah,"  published  first  as  a  weekly  in  1862  and  after- 
wards as  a  daily  from  1886.  The  large  immigration 
of  Yiddish  speaking  Jews  to  the  United  States  and 
Canada  furnished  an  unprecedented  opportunity  for 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  123 

Yiddish  journalism  and  created  a  number  of  large 
dailies  and  weeklies  in  these  countries.  A  similar 
opportunity  occurred  with  the  relaxation  of  the  cen- 
sorship in  Russia  and  Poland,  where  since  1903  nu- 
merous Yiddish  dailies  have  been  published. 

Quite  a  number  of  valuable  magazines  dealing  with 
Jewish  history  and  literature  have  been  published 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  Hebrew 
and  in  various  modern  languages.  "Wissenschaftliche 
Zeitschrift  fuer  Juedische  Theologie"  (1835-1840) 
and  "Juedische  Zeitschrift  fuer  Wissenschaft  und  Le- 
ben"  (1862-1875)  were  both  edited  by  Abraham  Gei- 
ger;  the  "Monatsschrift  fuer  Geschichte  und  Wissen- 
schaft des  Judentums,"  begun  by  Zechariah  Frankel 
in  1854,  was  discontinued  in  1887  and  has  been  re- 
published since  1891.  "Revue  des  Etudes  Juives" 
dates  from  1881 ;  "Jewish  Quarterly  Review"  ap- 
peared from  1888  to  1908  and  continued  in  Philadel- 
phia since  1910.  Of  the  Hebrew  magazines  there  are 
"Kerem  Hemed,"  of  which  nine  volumes  were  pub- 
lished from  1833  to  1856,  Bikure  Ha-ittim  (1820- 
1831),  and  "Haschiloach"  since  1896.  It  was  sus- 
pended during  the  War  and  has  been  republished. 
The  increase  of  Hebrew  authors  in  the  United  States 
helped  to  establish  Hebrew  periodicals  of  which  the 
weekly  "Hatoren"  may  be  mentioned. 

Rabbinic  literature  of  the  older  type,  dealing  with 
the  law  and  Talmudic  dialecticism,  has  also  a  great 
number  of  representatives  during  this  period.  Among 
the  foremost  may  be  named  Moses  Schreiber  (Sofer), 
born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1762,  died  as  rabbi 
of  Presburg  in  1839,  and  Akiba  Eger  (1761-1837). 


124  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

In  Western  Europe  this  literature  shows  a  steady 
decHne.  Of  the  authors  whose  Hfe  belongs  entirely 
to  the  nineteenth  century  may  be  mentioned  Jacob 
Ettlinger,  rabbi  of  Altona  (1798-1871),  and  Seligman 
Bar  Bamberger,  rabbi  of  Wuerzburg  (1807-1878). 
Very  numerous,  however,  are  the  Rabbinic  authors  of 
Eastern  Europe  and  the  Orient,  among  whom  Isaac 
Elhanan  Spector,  rabbi  of  Kovno  (1817-1896),  Hayim 
David  Hazan,  rabbi  of  Jerusalem  (1790-1868),  and 
his  grandson  Elijah  Hazan,  rabbi  of  Alexandria 
(1845-1908)  ;  Hayim  Palaggi,  rabbi  of  Smyrna  (1784- 
1868),  and  his  two  sons  Abraham  (1809-1899),  and 
Nissim  Isaac  (1814-1907)  ;  Saul  Jacob  Elyaschar, 
chief  rabbi  of  Jerusalem  (1816-1905),  Rahamim  Joseph 
Hayyim,  rabbi  of  Bagdad  (1826-1909),  and  Hayim 
Hezekiah  Medini  (1834-1904),  may  be  mentioned. 

Already  before  Mendelssohn's  time  individual  Jews 
in  Germany  and  Austria  distinguished  themselves  in 
literature  and  science.  But  the  education  of  the 
masses  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  Bible  and 
Talmud.  With  the  popularization  of  secular  knowl- 
edge the  necessity  for  schools  arose  and  the  first 
institution  of  this  kind  was  founded  in  Berlin  as 
the  "Jewish  Free  School"  in  1778.  The  efforts  of 
Emperor  Joseph  II  to  promote  secular  culture  among 
the  Jews  of  Austria  led  to  the  establishment  of  a 
primary  school  in  Prague  in  1782.  Others  followed 
in  different  cities :  the  Wilhelm  Schule  of  Breslau  was 
founded  in  1791 ;  the  Herzog  Franz-Schule  in  Dessau 
in  1799.  Higher  schools  were  the  Jacobson  Schule 
in  Seesen  in  1801,  the  Samson  Schule  in  Wolfen- 
buettel  in  1803,  and  the  Philanthropin  in  Frankfort- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  125 

on-the-Main  in  the  next  year.  The  latter  was  closed 
after  the  World  War  owing  to  financial  difficulties  and 
others  may  follow,  which  is  due  to  the  fact  that  spe- 
cial schools  for  secular  education  of  the  Jews  are 
no  longer  needed. 

Even  in  Eastern  Europe,  where  religious  fanat- 
icism was  bitterly  opposed  to  secular  education,  such 
schools  came  into  existence  like  the  one  founded  in 
Tarnopol  by  Joseph  Perls  in  1815.  In  spite  of  this 
opposition  other  secular  schools  were  established  m 
the  midst  of  the  most  fanatic  population,  as  the  Real- 
Schule  in  Brody,  Galicia,  1818,  and  one  in  Uman, 
Besarabia,  about  1820.  The  Alliance  Israelite  Uni- 
verselle,  founded  in  1860,  made  it  one  of  its  prin- 
cipal objects  to  establish  schools  for  secular  educa- 
tion in  the  Orient,  and  it  now  has  a  great  number 
of  schools  which  it  maintains  in  Turkey,  Northern 
Africa  and  Asia,  extending  from  Palestine  and  Asia 
Minor  to  Persia  and  Mesopotamia. 

Similar,  although  smaller  in  scope,  was  the  work 
undertaken  by  the  Anglo-Jewish  Association,  estab- 
lished in  1871,  and  by  the  Hilfsverein  of  the  German 
Jews,  established  in  1901.  Zionism  produced  various 
important  educational  activities  in  Palestine,  ranging 
from  kindergarten  to  academic  institutions,  a  progress 
quite  remarkable  considering  the  bitter  opposition 
which  the  Laemel-School,  the  first  secular  school  in 
Jerusalem,  met  at  its  establishment  in  1855.  The  most 
notable  institutions,  besides  the  secondary  schools 
(gymnasium)  in  Jaffa  and  Jerusalem,  are  the  Poly- 
technic in  Haifa  and  the  Bezalel  Art  School  in  Jeru- 
salem  (1905).     A  university  in  Jerusalem  is  being 


126  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

planned,  of  which  the  corner-stone  was  laid  on  the 
15th  of  Ab  (July  24,  1918). 

A  notable  educational  activity  was  inaugurated  in 
Russia  during  the  more  hopeful  era  of  Alexander  II, 
when  the  Society  for  Enlightenment  was  established 
in  1867,  In  spite  of  the  obstacles  which  the  auto- 
cratic government  put  in  its  way,  this  society  con- 
tributed greatly  to  the  spiritual  progress  of  the  Rus- 
sian Jews. 

With  the  growing  number  of  schools,  the  need  for 
special  training  schools  for  Jewish  teachers  arose. 
The  first  of  these  was  founded  in  Berlin  in  1825. 
More  important  was  the  need  for  training  schools  for 
rabbis.  The  old  method  of  education  by  which  every 
young  man  who  devoted  himself  to  study  was  a  Tal- 
mudic  scholar,  was  discontinued  in  Western  Europe. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  became  necessary  to  give  the 
rabbis  a  more  systematic  training.  The  first  modern 
school  of  this  kind  was  established  in  Padua,  then 
under  Austrian  rule,  in  1829.  Later  the  Yeshibah  of 
Metz  was  transformed  into  a  Rabbinic  seminary  and 
subsequently  transferred  to  Paris.  In  1854  the  Rab- 
binic seminary  of  Breslau  was  founded  and  this  was 
followed  by  the  estabhsliment  of  similar  institutions 
in  European  countries.  In  1875  the  first  Rabbinic 
seminary  in  America,  the  Hebrew  Union  College  of 
Cincinnati,  was  opened.  In  New  York  the  Jewish 
Theological  Seminary  was  established  in  1886.  Vari- 
ous educational  institutions  devoted  to  special  needs, 
such  as  the  school  for  the  deaf-mutes  opened  in 
Nikolsburg  in  1845,  and  later  transferred  to  Vienna, 
and  the  first  Jewish  institute  for  the  blind  established 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  127 

in  the  latter  city  in  1872,  deserve  to  be  mentioned  in 
this  connection. 

The  removal  of  the  disabilities  which  kept  the  Jews 
from  agriculture  and  mechanical  trades,  and  the  de- 
sire of  the  Jews  to  direct  the  young  generation  into 
such  pursuits  gave  rise  to  quite  a  number  of  institu- 
tions all  over  the  world  devoted  to  these  purposes. 
Several  of  these  are  located  in  the  Orient  and  were 
founded  or  subventioned  by  the  Alliance  Israelite.  It 
established  the  first  agricultural  school  near  Jaffa  in 
Palestine  in  1871.  The  Hebrew  Technical  Institute 
of  New  York,  founded  in  1884,  the  agricultural  schools 
at  Ahlem,  founded  1893,  at  Woodbine,  N.  J.,  1891, 
and  at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  1896,  may  be  mentioned. 

With  the  emancipation  from  Rabbinic  studies  a  new 
development  in  Jewish  learning  took  place.  This 
showed  itself  in  what  is  called  the  "Science  of  Juda- 
ism," and  may  be  defined  as  a  systematic  study  of 
Jewish  history  and  literature.  The  pioneer  in  this 
work  was  Leopold  Zunz  (1794-1886)  who  wrote  books 
on  the  history  of  Jewish  homiletics,  on  the  syna- 
gogal  poetry  and  various  minor  essays  on  all  phases 
of  Jewish  literature.  He  found  numerous  followers, 
not  merely  in  western  Europe,  but  also  in  the  East, 
and  thus  contributed  largety  to  the  intellectual  eleva- 
tion of  the  Jews. 

In  Eastern  countries  the  first  who  wrote  on  these 
topics  in  Hebrew  were  Nahman  Krochmal  (1785- 
1840)  and  Solomon  Loew  Rapoport  (1790-1867).  The 
latter,  inspired  by  the  works  of  Zunz,  was  the  author 
of  biographies  of  prominent  mediaeval  rabbis.  In 
Italy  we  have  Isaac  Samuel  Reggio  (1784-1855)  and 


128  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Samuel  David  Luzzatto  (1800-1865),  who  used  the 
excellent  collections  of  old  Hebrew  prints  and  manu- 
scripts for  the  elucidation  of  the  history  of  Jewish 
literature.  The  external  side  of  the  literature  was 
presented  in  erudite  form  by  the  great  bibliographer 
Moritz  Steinschneider  (1816-1907),  History  in  more 
readable  form  was  written  first  by  Isaac  Marcus  Jost 
(1793-1860),  and  then  by  Heinrich  Graetz  (1817- 
1891),  the  latter's  work  having  gone  through  various 
editions  and  been  translated  into  French,  English, 
Hebrew  and  Yiddish.  Numerous  authors  worked  at 
the  elucidation  of  portions  of  Jewish  history  and  care- 
fully edited  old  manuscripts.  Thus  they  shed  light  on 
obscure  parts  of  the  Jewish  past  and  showed  the 
many-sided  activity  of  the  Jew(s  during  the  long 
period  of  their  history  and  their  influence  on  all 
human  activities. 

Only  a  few  names  can  be  given.  German  history 
was  elucidated  by  Moritz  Guedemann  (1835-1918), 
whose  works  pointed  out  the  importance  of  studying 
the  cultural  life  of  the  Jews;  Ludwig  Geiger  (1848- 
1919),  David  Kaufmann  (1852-1897),  Marcus  Brann 
(1849-1920).  French  history  was  enriched  by  the 
works  of  Heinrich  Gross  (1835-1910),  Israel  Levi 
(born  1856),  and  M.  Liber.  English  history  received 
especially  thorough  treatment  by  various  authors. 
Christians  and  Jews.  Of  the  latter  may  be  quoted 
Joseph  Jacobs  (1854-1916),  Lucien  Wolf  (born  1857), 
Moses  Gaster  (born  1856),  and  Israel  Abrahams 
(bom  1858).  Scandinavian  history  found  a  diligent 
worker  in  David  Simonsen  (born  1853),  active  in 
many  branches  of  Jewish  literature.     Polish  and  Rus- 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  129 

sian  history  is  indebted  among  others  to  Simon  Dub- 
now  (born  1860),  and  Moses  Schorr.  Special  parts 
of  Italian  history  have  lately  been  presented  by  Um- 
berto  Cassuto. 

In  this  connection  the  participation  of  the  Jews  in 
secular  activity  ought  to  be  mentioned.  We  find 
them  as  authors,  artists,  inventors  and  scholars  in 
all  lines.  Only  the  most  prominent  can  be  named. 
Ludwig  Boerne,  formerly  Loeb  Baruch  (1784-1837), 
is  one  of  the  classic  essayists  of  German  literature; 
Heinrich  Heine  (1797-1856)  is  one  of  the  greatest  of 
lyric  poets.  Both  Heine  and  Boerne  became  converted 
to  Christianity.  A  classic  author  of  village  idyls  is 
Berthold  Auerbach  (1812-1882).  Among  the  greatest 
tragedians  of  the  world  are  Eliza  Rachel  Felix  (1821- 
1858),  in  her  days  the  foremost  actress  on  the  French 
stage,  and  Adolf  von  Sonnenthal  (1832-1909)  consid- 
ered the  most  prominent  German  actor  of  his  time. 
Giacomo  Meyerbeer  (1791-1864)  is  one  of  the  world's 
best  known  composers.  Moritz  Oppenheimer  (1800- 
1881)  was  a  prominent  painter,  and  his  scenes  from 
Jewish  life  possess,  besides  their  value  as  works  of 
art,  great  worth  as  historic  scenes.  Marcus  Antokol- 
sky  (1842-1902)  is  one  of  the  most  famous  sculptors, 
and  Josef  Israels  (1824-1911)  and  Max  Liebermann 
(born  1849)  are  among  the  greatest  painters  of  our 
age.  In  the  lines  of  science  and  scholarly  work  the 
names  of  prominent  Jews  are  too  numerous  to  men- 
tion. 

The  great  change  in  the  life  of  the  Jews  and 
their  education  brought  about  the  necessity  of  har- 
monizing their  religious  practices  with  their  new  life. 


130  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

Thus  the  reform  movement  began.  The  forces  which 
promoted  it  were  aesthetic,  political  and  dogmatic.  In 
the  first  class  may  be  reckoned  the  efforts  of  Israel 
Jacobson  (1768-1828).  Although  not  a  professional 
scholar  he  was  a  man  of  considerable  Jewish  learn- 
ing, and  his  object  was  to  make  the  services  of  the 
synagogue  more  attractive  to  the  younger  generation. 
The  synagogue  established  by  him  in  connection  with 
the  school  which  he  founded  in  Seesen  in  1810  was 
the  first  that  introduced  some  of  the  reforms  which 
since  have  been  generally  accepted,  namely,  a  sermon 
in  the  vernacular  and  decorum  and  modern  music. 

In  1818  the  first  reform  congregation  was  estab- 
lished in  Hamburg.  Jacobson,  who  removed  to  Berlin, 
held  modernized  services  in  his  home  (1815).  The 
Hebrew  ritual  was  abridged,  German  prayers  were 
introduced,  instrumental  music  accompanied  the  sing- 
ing and  a  sermon  formed  part  of  the  service.  His 
example  was  followed  by  Jacob  Herz  Beer,  the  father 
of  the  composer  Meyerbeer.  The  elders  of  the  congre- 
gation protested  and  the  services  were  prohibited  by 
a  royal  order.  Edward  Kley,  one  of  the  preachers  in 
Beer's  synagogue,  was  called  as  school  principal  to 
Hamburg  where  he  introduced  such  services  in  his 
school.  This  gave  an  impulse  to  the  establishment  of  a 
regular  reform  congregation  which  began  its  services 
in  1818.  It  was  followed  in  1824  by  a  similar  or- 
ganization in  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  this,  however,  was 
soon  dissolved.  These  synagogues  introduced  a  ritual 
different  from  the  one  which  had  up  to  this  time 
been  generally  in  use.  The  most  important  changes 
were  those  which  eliminated  the  belief  in  the  return"^ 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  131 

of  the  Jews  to  Palestine  and  consequently  also  in  the 
/  restoration  of  the  sacrificial  cult.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  an  attempt  to  present  systematically  the 
teachings  of  modern  Judaism  and  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  modern  critical  school  to  the  whole  of 
Jewish  life,  particularly  the  observance  of  the  dietary 
and  marriage  laws. 

The  desire  to  work  in  harmony  led  to  the  convoca- 
tion of  Rabbinic  assemblies,  the  first  of  which  was 
held  in  Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1844.  As  the  ex- 
ponent of  the  most  radical  views  Samuel  Holdheim 
(1806-1860)  is  to  be  mentioned.  It  was  his  idea  that 
Judaism  had  lost  all  its  former  national  significance. 
On  this  basis  the  reform  congregation  of  Berlin,  whose 
first  rabbi  Holdheim  was,  was  established  in  1845, 
introducing  for  the  first  time  solemn  services  on 
Sunday. 

The  most  prominent  scientific  exponent  of  the  re- 
form idea  was  Abrahani  Geiger  (1810-1874),  one  of 
the  most  prominent  workers  in  scientific  Jewish  litera- 
ture. He  stood  for  a  more  historic  conception  of  the 
reform  principle,  although  as  a  Bible  critic  his  posi- 
tion was  advanced.  His  views  were  shared  by  three 
of  the  leading  rabbis  of  America,  David  Einhorn 
(1809-1879),  Samuel  Hirsch  (1815-1889),  and  Ber- 
nard Felsenthal  (1822-1908).  They,  together  with 
Samuel  Adler  (1809-1891),  represented  the  progres- 
sive ideas  of  German  theology  in  America. 

In  1842  reform  was  definitely  introduced  in  the 
synagogue  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  following  the  example 
set  by  the  foundation  of  the  West  London  Synagogue 
of   British  Jews  the  year   previously.     In  America, 


132  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

however,  reform  took  strongest  hold  and  soon  was 
accepted  by  the  leading  congregations  composed  of 
the  native  and  the  naturalized  element.  The  most 
prominent  figure  in  the  popularization  of  this  move- 
ment in  America  was  Isaac  Mayer  Wise  (1819-1900). 
A  more  conservative  view,  usually  spoken  of  as 
that  of  historic  Judaism,  was  represented  by  Zecha- 
riah  Frankel  (1801-1875).  He  stood  for  freedom  of 
thought  in  theoretical  matters  but  advocated  con- 
servatism in  worship  and  practice.  Another  division 
was  formed  by  those  who  stood  uncompromisingly  for 
the  preservation  of  the  traditional  Jewish  life  based 
on  a  strict  belief  in  the  divine  origin  of  the  Bible  and 
the  authenticity  of  Rabbinic  interpretation,  differing 
from  the  old  school  only  in  so  far  as  they  admitted 
secular  education.  The  chief  exponent  of  this  thought 
was  Samson  Raphael  Hirsch  (1808-1888).  In  Amer- 
ica his  views  were  represented  by  Isaac  Leeser  (1806- 
1868)  and  Sabato  Morais  (1823-1897),  while  a  com- 
promising attitude  was  taken  by  Benjamin  Szold 
(1829-1902),  Marcus  Jastrow  (1829-1903),  and  Solo- 
mon Schechter  (1847-1915),  under  whose  guidance  the 
Jewish  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York,  reorgan- 
ized in  1902  when  he  was  called  to  its  presidency, 
became  the  training  school  for  rabbis  representing 
this  idea.  The  traditional  view  of  Judaism,  in  the 
sense  in  which  it  had  generally  existed  until  the 
latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  restricted 
to  the  Orient  and  Eastern  Europe  and  to  congregations 
formed  by  recent  immigrants  from  these  countries  in 
Western  Europe  and  America.  As  literary  champions 
of  this  uncompromising  attitude  Hillel   Lichtenstein 


HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS  133 

(1815-1891),  and  his  son-in-law,  Akiba  Joseph  Schles- 
inger  (born  1838),  deserve  mention. 

One  of  the  features  of  modern  Jewish  development 
is  the  communal  organization  rendered  possible  by 
the  freedom  of  movement  in  religious,  charitable  and 
political  activities.  The  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle 
deserves  for  this  the  first  place.  It  was  founded  for 
the  purpose  of  defending  the  interests  of  the  Jews  in 
countries  of  oppression  and  promoting  their  economic 
and  moral  as  well  as  their  intellectual  status.  This 
organization  was  followed  by  others  with  simdlax 
objects,  the  Israelitische  Allianz  of  Vienna,  started  in 
1873,  the  Anglo-Jewish  Association,  founded  in  1871, 
and  the  Hilfsverein  der  deutschen  Juden,  in  1901. 

Of  the  many  organizations  confined  to  particular 
countries  the  Deutsch-Israelitischer  Gemeinde-Bund, 
founded  in  1869,  and  the  Union  of  American  Hebrew 
Congregations,  established  in  1873,  deserve  special 
mention.  Very  numerous  are  the  societies  created  for 
the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  the  Jews,  and  aside 
from  the  local  institutions,  like  hospitals,  homes  for 
the  aged,  orphan  asylums  and  sanitariums,  the  so- 
cieties for  the  promotion  of  mechanical  trades  and 
agriculture  are  distinctly  a  product  of  the  Jewish  con- 
ditions of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  Jews  of  the 
United  States  surpassed  all  activities  of  Jewish  organ- 
izations in  Europe  and  of  all  previously  known  in 
history  by  constructive  work.  Among  the  numerous 
high  minded  philanthropists  of  this  country  the  name 
of  Jacob  H.  Schiff  (1847-1920)  stands  foremost. 

The  World  War,  which  from  the  start  affected  the 
territory  in  which  Jews  always  lived  in  great  numbers 


134  HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWS 

and  in  distressing  poverty,  created  relief  organizations 
of  an  unprecedented  scope.  Most  prominent  among 
them  is  the  Joint  Distribution  Committee,  formed  by 
the  Jews  of  the  United  States,  which  has  expended 
over  $30,000,000  in  efforts  to  alleviate  the  terrible 
misery  created  by  the  war  and  the  subsequent  pogroms. 
Of  organizations  having  a  wider  scope,  the  Jewish 
Colonization  Association  founded  by  Baron  Moritz 
de  Hirsch  in  1891,  has  the  greatest  capital.  These 
schemes  of  colonization,  to  which  the  work  done  by 
the  Zionist  organizations  and  that  contemplated  by 
the  Jewish  Territorial  Organization  founded  in  1905, 
have  to  be  added,  are  as  yet  only  in  their  infancy. 
In  general,  however,  since  the  French  Revolution 
there  has  been  a  steady  progress  of  Jewish  Hfe  in 
all  directions,  sadly  interrupted  by  the  World  War. 


INDEX 


Aaron  ben  Elijah,  49 
Abarbanel,  Isaac,  72 
Abaye,  38 

Abba  Areka   (Rab),  2,7 
Abbahu  of  Caesarea,  35 
Abderrahman,    44 
Abeles,  Lazarus,  87 
Abraham  ben  David,  74 

—  ibn  Ezra,  56 
Abrahams,    Israel,    128 
Abramowitsch,     Shalom     Ja- 
cob, 120 

Abulafia,   Meir,  74 
Achad  Ha-Am,  114 
Acosta,  Uriel,  85 
Adereth  Eliyahu,  49 
Adler,    Samuel,    131 
Aelia   Capitolina,  25 
Africa,  South,  92 
Agobard,  43,  44 
Agrippa,  20 

—  II,  20,  21 

Ahai  of  Shabha,  46 
"Aharonim,"  96 
Akedat  Yizhak,  72 
Akiba,  25,  28-30,  47 
Albigenses,  70 
Albo,  Joseph,  66,  71 
Alcharizi,  Judah.  57 
Alexander  I,   107 

—  II,  107,  108,  126 

—  Jannai,  16 

— ,  son  of  Aristobulus,  17 
^,  the  Great,   11 
— ,  successors   of,    12 
— ,  Moses,   117 
Alexandra,  Salome,  16 


136 


Alexandria,   11 

Alfasi,  Isaac,  58,  74,  75 

Algiers,  Chief  Rabbi  of,  75 

Alkabez,  Solomon  Halevi,  96 

Alkymus,   15 

Alliance      Israelite      Univer- 

selle,   125-7,   133 
Alorqui,  Joshua,  66,  7Z 
Alphonso   X,  65 
Alsace,  61,  64,  83,  104,  121 
Ambrosius,  42 
America,    92,    109,    112,    121, 

122,   131-3 

—  Early    Jewish    Communi- 

ties in,  91,  92 
American  Revolution,  92 
Amolo,   44 
Amoraim,  35 
Amram  Gaon,  46 
Amsterdam,   84,    85,   90 
Anan    ben    David,   48 
Anatoli,  Jacob,  72 
"Ancient  People,  The,"  119 
Ancona,  78 
Anglo-Jewish        Association, 

125,  133 
Antigonus,  12 

—  16 

Anti-Jewish  books,  43,  48,  82, 

88 
Antiochus  III,  12 

—  IV    (Ephiphanes),   12,   14 

—  V,   14 
Antipater,    17 
Anti-Semitism,  Rise  of,   111- 

13,  121 
Antokolsky,  Marcus,  129 


136 


INDEX 


Antony,   18 
Apollonius,    13 
Aquino,  Thomas  of,  55 
Arabs,  40,  44,  54,  56,  68 
Arama,  Isaac,  72 
Arbues,    Peter,  66 
Archelaus,    19 
Argentine,  92 
Arians,  43 
Aristobulus,    16 

—  16,   17 

Armleder,  John,  61 
Artaxerxes,    10 

—  Ill,  Ochus,  11 
Aruk,   46,    58 
Aryeh  Loeb,  97 
Ascarelli,    Deborah,    94 
Asch,   Sholom,    120 
Ashe,  Rab,  38 

Asher  ben  Yechiel,  74 

Ashkenazi,  Solomon,  78 

Assimilationists,    115 

Assuan,  10 

Auerbach,  Berthold,  129 

Augustus,   18 

Australia,  92 

Austria,  83,  89,  101,  102,  104, 

106,  109,  111,  126 
Auto-da-fe,   66,  67,  91 
Auto-Emancipation,    114 
Avicebron,  55 
Avignon,  64 
Azariah    dei    Rossi    of    Fer- 

rara,  94,  95 
Azulai,  H.  J.  D.,  98 

Babylonia,    9,    10,   36-8,    45 

Bacharach,  Jair  Hayyim,  98 

Bagdad,   124 

Bahya  ibn  Pakuda,  55,  71 

Bajazed  II,  Sultan,  11 

Balfour,  Arthur  J.,  115 

Balkans,  70 

Bamberger,     Seligman     Bar, 

124 
Barcelona,  Disputation  at,  64 
Bar  Kochba,  Simeon,  25,  29 


Bashjazi,  Elijah,  49 

Basle,    Zionist    Congress    at, 

114 
Bathori,  Stephen,  78 
Bavaria,  Mobs  in,  105,  112 
Beer,  Jacob  Herz,   130 
Beer-Hoffmann,  Richard,  122 
Beilis,   Mendel,   113 
Bela  IV,  69 
Benedict  XIII,  65 
—  of  York,  54 
Benjamin  of  Nehawend,  48 
Berlin,  80,  83,  88,  90,  101,  117, 

124,   131 
— ,  Treaty  of,  110,  113 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  53 
Bernardin  of   Feltre,  62,  68 
Bernstein,   Aaron,    121 
— ,  Henri,  122 
Besarabia,   125 
Besht,  Israel,  86 
Bevis  of  Hampton,  Sir,  94 
Bezalel  Art  School,  125 
Bialik,  Chayim  Nachman,  119 
Bialystok,    108 
Bikure  Ha-ittim,  123 
Biurists,  118 
Black  Plague,  61 
Blois,    France,    54 
Blood-accusation,   53,   59,   62, 

68,  87,  88,   113 
Bloomgarden,   Solomon,   121 
Bobo  book,  93 
Bodin,  Jean,  81 
Boerne,  Ludwig,  129 
Bohemia,   69 
Bolsheviki,    109 
Bonds,  Annulling  of,  62 
Bonsenyor,  Judah,   1^ 
Brandeis,   Louis   D.,   117 
Brann,   Marcus,   128 
Brazil,  91 
Breslau,  62,  76 
— ,  Rabbinic  Seminary  at,  126 
Brest-Litovsk,   109 
Briman,   Aaron,   113 
Brody,  125 


INDEX 


137 


Bruna,  Israel,  Trial  of,  76 
Buenos  Aires,  116 
Bulgaria,    110 
Byzantine  Empire,  34,  42 


Caesar,   17 

Csesarea,  21 

Cairo,  49 

Caligula,   19 

Callistus,   26 

Calvin,  81 

Canada,  92,  122 

Cape  Town,  92 

Capistrano,  John,  62,  69 

Carrion,  Santob  de,  12> 

Caro,  Joseph,  72,  95,  96 

Carolina,    Colony,    lOO 

Carpentras,  64 

Casimir  the  Great,  69 

Cassuto,  Umberto,   129 

Central   Powers,   109 

Cestius   Callus,  21 

Champagne,  province  of,  58 

Charlemagne,  44,   52 

Charles   II  of  England,  84 

—  Ill   of   France,   44 

Charleston,  S.  C,  Reform 
Congregation  at,  130,  131 

Charters,  53,  69 

Chazars,  50,  56 

"Children  of  the  Ghetto,"  121 

Chmelnicki,  87,   110 

Cincinnati,  Rabbinic  Semi- 
nary of,  126 

Claudius,  20 

Clemens,  Flavius,  24 

Clementina,   24 

Cohen,  Joseph,  98 

— ,  Sabbatai,  96 

— ,  Tobias,  99 

Cologne,  62,  103 

Colon,  Joseph,  75 

Conforte,  David,  99 

Constantine,  ZZ,   52 

Constantinople,  49 

— ,  Conquest  of,  70 


Cordova,   Jews   in    Caliphate 

of,  44 
Cracow,  81 
Crassus,  17 

Cremieux,   Adolph,   112 
Crescas,  Hasdai,  71 
Crimea,  49 
Cromwell,  84,  90 
Crusades,  53,  64,  69 
Cumberland,  Richard,  101 
Cyril,  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 

34 
Cyprus,  24 
Cyrene,   24 
Cyrus,    9 
Czars,   107,  108 

Dahlberg,  Baron  von,  103 
Damascus,  Blood  Accusation 

in,  112 
Dante,  72 
David  Halevi,  96 
David    ben    Zakkai,    47 
Delitzsch,   Franz,    113 
Delmedigo,  Jos.   Sol.,  94 
Demetrius   I,   14 
Dessau,  88 
Deuterosis,  34 
Deutsch-Israelitischer         Ge- 

meinde-Bund,    133 
Dialecticism    (see   Pilpul) 
Dio  Cassius,  24 
Diocletian,  32 
Disputations,  64,  65 
Divina  Commedia,  72 
Dod  Mordecai,  49 
Dohm,  Christian  F.,  102 
Dominican  Friars,  70,  71,  74, 

82 
Domitian,  23 
Donin,  Nicholas,  63,  71 
Donmah,  86 
Donolo,    Sabbatai,    51 
Dramatists,  Yiddish,   121 
Dreyfus,  Capt.  Alfred,  111 
Drumont's        "La         France 

Juive,"   111 


138 


INDEX 


Dubnow,  S.  M.,  129 

Duma,  108 

Dunash  ibn   Labrat,  45 

Duran,    Profit,   73 

— ,  Simeon  ben  Zemach,  75 

Eben  Bohan,  72 

—  Haezer,  75 
Eck,  John,  80 
Edward  I,  60 
Eger,  Akiba,  123 
Egypt,  9,  10 
Einhorn,    David,    131 
Eisenmenger,  J.   A.,  88 
Eisner,  Kurt,  112 
Eldad   Hadani,  50 
Eleazar  ben  Azariah,  28 

—  ben  Jehudah,  76 

—  ben  Kallir,  50 

—  of   Modin,   25 

—  bar  Padath,  35 
Eliezer  ben  Hyrkanos,  28 
Elijah  Levita,  93 

—  de  Vidas,  96 

—  del  Medigo,  73 

—  of  Wilna,  98 

Elisha    ben     Abuya     (Acher 

the   Apostate),   29 
Ellstaetter,   Moritz,   117 
Elyaschar,    S.   J.,    124 
Emden,   city,   84 
— ,  Jacob,  98 
Emigration  from  Russia  and 

Rumania,  115 
Emunot   Wedeot,  47 
England,  60,  84,  91,  92,   100, 

102,  106,  109,  115,  116 
En  Jacob,  95 

"Entdecktes    Judenthum,"   88 
Eshkol  Hakofer,  49 
Ethics,  85 
Ets   Hayim,  49 
Ettlinger,    Jacob,    124 
Eupatoria,  49 
Expulsion    of    Jews,    Arabia, 

41 
— ,  Austria,  83 


Expulsion  of  Jews,  Berlin,  83 

— ,  Bohemia,  83 

— ,  England,  60,  84 

— ,  France,  60,  63,  64 

— ,  Germany,   62,   63 

— ,  Hungary,  69 

— ,  Luebeck,    105 

— ,  Portugal,  67 

— ,  Spain,  67,  69 

— ,  Vienna,  88 

Eybeschuetz,  Jonathan,  97,  98 

Ezra,  the  Scribe,  10,  37 

— ,  the  Kabbalist,  76 

Ezriel,  76 

Farhi  Estori,  64 
Felix,    Eliza    Rachel,    129 
Felsenthal,   Bernard,   131 
Ferdinand  of  Spain,  67,  77 

—  I  of  Austria,  83 
Firkovitch,   Abraham,  49 
"Fiscus  Judaicus,"  23,  24 
Flagellants,  61 

Fould,         Godchaux         and 

Achille,  116 
France,  42,  43,  54,  58-60,  63, 

64,  74,  103,  111,  121 
Frank,  Jacob,  86 
Frankel,   Zechariah,   122,    132 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,       88, 

103,   131 
Franzos,  Karl  Emil,  121 
Frederick  II  of  Germany,  59, 

72 

—  the    Belligerent,    Law    of, 

59 

—  the  Great,  101 

—  William  III,  105 

—  William,  of  Brandenburg, 

88 
French    Revolution,    105,    134 

Gabirol  (see  Solomon  ibn) 
Galicia,  49.   125 
Gamaliel  II,  27,  28 
Gan   Eden,  49 
Gans,  David,  98 


INDEX 


139 


Gaonim,   45-8 

Gaster,  Moses,  128 

Gaza,  Battle  of,  12 

Gedaliah    ibn    Yahya,   98 

Geiger,  Abraham,   123,   131 

— ,   Ludwig,   128 

Geneva,  81 

Germany,  41,  42,  44,  52,  58, 
59,  61,  62,  74,  80,  83,  89, 
92,  95-7,  99,  103,  105,  106, 
109,  111,  113,  121,  124 

Geronimo  de  Santa  Fe  (see 
Alorqui,   Joshua) 

Gershom  ben  Judah  (Meor 
Hagolah),  52 

Gessius  Florus,  20 

Ghetto,  78,  103 

Ghetto  novel,  121 

Ginzberg,  Asher,  114 

Goldschmidt,  Meier  Aaron, 
121 

Goldsmid,  Francis  H.,  107 

Gombiner,    Abraham,   96 

Gomperz,   EHjah,   88 

Gordin,  Jacob,  120 

Gordon,  Judah  Leon,  119 

Goths,  42 

Graetz,    Heinrich,    128 

Granada,  67 

Great  Britain   (see  England) 

Gregoire,  Abbe,    102 

Gregory  I,  42,  43 

—  of  Tours,  43 

Gross,    Heinrich,    128 

Guedemann,   Moritz,   128 

Guenzburg,   Aaron,    119 

"Guide  of  the  Perplexed,"  57 

Habib,  Jacob  ibn,  94 
Hadrian,  24-6 
Haifa,   125 
Halakot  Gedolot,  46 
Halberstadt,   88 
Halicz,  49 
Halle,  88 
Hamaggid,   122 
Hamburg,  105,   130 


Hamon,  Joseph,  Ti 

Hanina,   Rabbi,  35 

Haschiloach,    123 

Hasdai  ibn  Shaprut,  44,  50 

Hasidim,  86 

— ,  Sefer,  76 

Hasidism,  86 

Hasmoneans,  14 

Hatoren,  123 

Hay  Gaon,  47 

Hayon,  Nehemiah,  86 

Hayyim,  R.  J.,  124 

Hazan,   Elijah,    124 

— .   Hayim   David,   124 

"Hazefirah,"  122 

Hechasid,  Judah  ben  Samuel, 

76 
Heilprin,  Jehiel,  99 
Heine,  Heinrich,  129 
Helic,  Luke,  81 
Heliodorus,  13 
Henry  II,  90 

—  II,   of  Aragon,  65 

—  HI,  of  England,  60 

—  IV,  of  Germany,  53 
"Hep-hep"  riots,  105 
Heraclius,  34 

Herod,  17,  18 

—  Antipas,  18 

Herzl,  Theodor,  114,  122 

Hezekiah,   17 

— ,  Gaon,  48 

Hilfsverein      der      deutschen 

Juden,  125 
Hillel,  26,  27 

—  II,  36 
Hilperic,  43 

Hirsch,     Baron     Moritz     de, 

115,  134 
— ,  Paul,   117 
— ,  Samson    Raphael,    132 
— ,  Samuel,    131 
Hirschbein,   Perez,  120 
Hisda,  38 
Hizuk   Emunah,  49 
Hof-Jude,   Ilof-factor,  88 
Holdheim,  Samuel,  131 


140 


INDEX 


Holland    (see   Amsterdam) 

Homel,  108 

Honig,  Anton,  101,   104 

Horowitz,    Isaiah,   96 

Hoshen  Mishpat,  75 

Host  Desecration,  61,  62,  82 

Huna,  ZT,  38 

Hungary,  69,  81,   112 

Hussites,  62 

Hyrcanus,  John,  15 

Ibn  Ezra,  Abraham,  56,  95 

—  Ganah,  45 

—  Moses,  56 

—  Tibbon,  Samuel,  57,  71 
Idumeans,   15,   17,   18 
Ikkarim,   66,   71 
Immanuel  ben  Solomon,  72 
Innocent  III,  54 

—  IV,  59 

Inquisition,  66,  67,  70,  89,  90 
Ipsus,   Battle   of,   12 
Isaac  ben   Meir,  58 

—  ben  Sheshet   (Ribash),  75 
— ,  Bernhard,    101 

— ,  Don,  65 

—  of  Troki,  49 

— ,  son   of   Rabed,   76 
Isaacs,  Rufus,  117 
Isabella,  €1 
Isaiah  di  Trani,  75 
Ishmael,  Rabbi,  29 
Isidore  of  Seville,  43 
Islam,  41,  86 
Israelitische  Allianz,  132 
Israels,  Joseph,  129 
Isserlein,   Israel,  76 
Isserls,  Moses,  95 
Italy,    103 

Jabneh,   School   of,  27 
Jacob  ben  Asher,  75,  95 
Jacobs,  Joseph,  128 
Jacobson,    Israel,    130 
Jaflfa,   125 

Jakob    ben    Meir    (see    Rab- 
benu  Tam) 


James  II,  of  Aragon,  IZ 

—  VIII,  64 
Jannai,   50 

— ,  Alexander,  16 

Jason    (Joshua),  13 

Jastrow,    Marcus,    132 

"Jehoash,"    121 

Jeremiah,   10 

Jerome,  36 

Jerusalem,    115,    124,    125 

— ,  Siege  of,  by  Titus,  23 

,  by  Pladrian,  25 

,  by  Saladin,  70 

Jesuits,  78,  87,  88 

Jesus,  82 

Jew  Badge  (see  Yellow 
Badge) 

Jewish  Colonization  Associa- 
tion,  134 

—  Propaganda,  in  Rome,  23, 

ZZ 

—  Territorial     Organization, 

114,   134 
Joachim    II,    Margrave,   83 
Joffe,  Adolph,  109 
Johanan  bar  Nappaha,  35 
— ,  high  priest,  11 

—  ben  Zakkai,  27 

John,  King  of   England,  60 

—  Hyrcanus,  15 

Joint    Distribution    Commit- 
tee,  133 
Jonathan,  Maccabee,   15 
Jose   bar   Halafta,  30 

—  ben  Jose,  50 
— ,  Rabbi,  36 

Joseph    II    of    Austria,    101, 

102,   124 
— ,  Rab,  38 
— ,  Raphael,  85 
— ,  son  of   Samuel  Hanagid, 

55 
— ,  son  of  Tobias,  12 
Josephus,   Flavius,  21,   51 
Joshua  ben  Hananiah,  28 

—  ben  Jehozadak,  10 
—.Jacob,  97 


INDEX 


141 


Josippon,   51 

Jost,   Isaac   Marcus,   128 
Jotapat,  Siege  of,  21 
Judaeo-Christian  sect,  86 
Judah   bar   Ezekiel,  38 

—  bar  Ilai,  30 

—  ben   Samuel  Hechasid,   76 

—  Hadassi,  48 

—  Halevi,   50,   55,  71 

—  Hanasi,  30,  32,  34,  35,  2>7 
,  successors  of,  35 

—  Hayug,  45 

— ,  son  of  Hezekiah,  19 
— ,  the    Elder,    71 
— ,  the    Maccabee,    14 
— ,  the    Patriarch,   26 
Judenfeind,  81 
Judenstaat,  Der,  114 
Juh'an,  the  Apostate,  ZZ 
Julius  Severus,  25 
Justinian,  34 

Kabbala,   46,   51,   70,   76,   86, 

94,  96-8 
Kalla,  45 
Kalonymos    ben    Kalonymos, 

72 

—  family,  76 

— ,  of  Lucca,  44,  52 
Kapsali,  Elijah,  75 
Kara,  Simeon,  72i 
Karaites,  49,  50 
Karben,  Victor  von,  82 
Kaufman,  David,   128 
Kerem  Hemed,  123 
Kiev,    113 

Kimhi,  David,  69,  70 
— ,  Joseph,  71 
— ,  Moses,  71 
Kishineff,   108,  119 
Kley,  Edward,  130 
Klotz,  Lucien  L.,  116 
Kohut,  Alexander,  46 
Kompert,    Leopold,    121 
Konitz,  113 

Krochmal,  Nahman,  127 
Kuzari,  50,  56,  71 


Ladino,  70,  77 
Laemel,    School,    125 
Laimen,   Bavaria,    101 
Landau,   Ezekiel,  97 
Lateran  Council,  54 
Lattes,    Bonet   de,   79 
Lazarus,   Emma,  121 
Leeser,  Isaac,  132 
Legislation,    Medieval,   59 
Lehman,    Behrendt,    88 
"Lekah   Dodi,"   96 
Lemberg,  87,  109 
Lemlein,  Asher,  79 
Leo   X,  78 

Leon,  judah  Messer,  72) 
Leopold    (Lippold),  83 

—  I  of  Austria,  88 
Lessing,   G.   E.,   100 
Levi  ben  Gershom,  71 
— ,  Herz,  88 

— ,  Israel,   128 
Levita,  Elijah,  79,  93 
Liber,  M.,  128 
Libin,   S.,   120 
Libman,  Jost,  88 
Lichtenstein,  Hillel,  132 
Liebermann,   Max,   129 
Literary   Activity  in   Europe, 

Earliest,   50 
Lithuania,  87 
Liturgy,   46,   55 
Locke,  John,    100 
Loeb,  Aryeh,  97 
Loewe  ben  Bezalel,  85 
Longobards,  42 
Louis  I  of  Germany,  44 

—  of   Hungary,   69 

—  IX  of  France,  63 

—  X  of  France,  64 

—  of   Hesse,  81 
Luebeck,   105 
Luria,   Isaac,  96 
— ,  Solomon,  95 
Luther,  80 
Luzzatti,  Luigi,  116 
Luzzatto,      Aloses      Hayyim, 

97 


142 


INDEX 


Luzzatto,  Samuel  David,  128 
Lysias,  14 

Maaseh  Tobiyah,  99 
Maccabee,   Judah   the,    14 
Machir  ben  Aba  Mari,  ITi 
Madrid,  68 

Magnesia,   Battle  of,    12 
Magnus  Albertus,  55 
Maimonides,    56,   57,    71,    74, 

85 
Mammaea,  26 
Manuel,  67 
Mapu,   Abraham,    119 
Marannos,  65,  67,  11,  79,  84, 

89,  91 
Marcus  Aurelius,  26 
Margaliot,  Jacob,  81 
Margaritha,  Antonius,  81 
Mariamne,  18,  20 
Marinus  (see  ibn  Ganah) 
Martinez,   Ferdinand,  65 
Massada,  Siege  of,  22 
Masseket   Purim,   72 
Mattathiah,  14 
Mayence,  52,   103 
"Meassef,"  118,  122 
Medigo  (see  Delmedigo,  Jos. 

Sol.) 
Medigo,  Elijah  del,  1Z 
Medini,      Hayim      Hezekiah, 

124 
Meir  of  Rothenburg,  74 
— ,  Rabbi,  30 
Meisels,    Mordecai,   83 
Menahem  ben  Saruk,  45 
Menasseh  ben  Israel,  84 
Mendele  the  bookseller    (see 

Abramowitsch) 
Mendelssohn,      Moses,      101, 

117,  118,   124 
Mendes,    Joseph     (Duke    of 

Naxos),    n 
— ,  Gracia,   11 
Menelaus,    13 
Meor   Enayim,  94 
Merovingian  kings,  43 


Messiah,  38,  41,  78,  79,  85,  86, 

96 
Metz,  102,   126 
Meyer,  Paulus,   113 
Meyerbeer,      Giacomo,      129, 

130 
Mezdzyrzecz,    Baer,    86 
Midrash,  50,  51,  72,  11 
Miklol,  70 

Ministers,  Jews  as,   117 
Mishnah,  Compilation  of,  30, 

34,  35,  Zl,  38 
— ,  Commentary,  56,  71 
Mishneh  Torah,  56 
Mizrachi,  115 
Mizrahi,   Elijah,  93 
Mob  Violence,  34,  42,  53,  54, 

61,  62,  63,  69,  87,  88,  90, 

103,  105,  108 
Modena,  Leon,  94 
Modin,  14 
Mohammed,  40,  41 
Mohammedans,  ZZ,  44,  45,  65, 

79,  101 
Molcho,    Solomon,    79 
Monism,  85 

Montefiore,   Moses,  112,   114 
Morais,    Sabato,    132 
Moravian  Brethren,  81 
Mordecai  ben  Hillel,  75 

—  ben  Nissim,  49 

Aloreh   Nebukim,   57,  70,  71, 

74 
Morgenthau,   Henry,   109 
Mortara,   Ludovico,   116 
Morteira,   Rabbi   Saul,  85 
Moses     ben     Maimon      (see 

Maimonides) 

—  ben  Nachman,  64,  74 

—  ben  Uri,  84 

—  ibn  Ezra,  56 

—  of  Coucy,  16 

—  of  Leon,  16 

Nahman   bar  Jacob,   38 

—  of  Bratzlav,  86 
Naples,  42,  62 


INDEX 


143 


Napoleon  I,   104 

—  Ill,  116 
Nasi,  Joseph,  78 
Nathan  of  Gaza,  85 

—  of  Rome,  47,  58 
Nathan  the  Wise,   100 
Naxos,  Duke  of,   11 
Nebuchadnezzar,  9 
Nehardea,  School  in,  il 
Nehemiah,   10 

—  Hakohen,  86 
Nero,  21 
Nerva,  24 

New    Christians,   90 

New  York,  120 

— ,  Rabbinic      Seminary     of, 

124 
Nicholas  I,  107 

—  II,   108 
Nigrinus,  81 
Nikanor,   15 
Nikolsburg,    124 
Nobel  prize,  117 
Norway,  106 
Nuremberg,  75 

Odessa,   108 
Offenbach,  86 
Oglethorpe,   James,  91 
Omar,  Covenant  of,  41 
Onias  III,  13 
Oppenheimer,  Moritz,  129 
— ,   Samuel,  88 
Orah   Hayyim,   75 
Organizations,  133,  134 
Orzeska,   Eliza,   121 
Ostrogoths,   41 
Ottolenghi,  Joseph,  116 

Padua,  School  at,  126 

Palaggi,  Hayim,  124 

— ,  Abraham,  124 

— ,  Nissim   Isaac,   124 

Palestine,  9,  10,  64,  114,  115, 

125 
— ,  Character  of   Studies   in, 

36 


Pampulov,  Samuel,  49 

Pantheism     (Monism),    85 

Parliaments,  Jews  as  mem- 
bers of,    105-7 

Paole   Zion,    115 

Parsees,  2)2 

Parthians,   18,  32 

Paul,  Bishop  of  Burgos,  65 
12> 

—  IV,'  79 
Payetanim,  50 

Peretz,    Isaac   Loeb,    120 

Perls,   Joseph,    125 

Persecutions  (see  Mob  Vio- 
lence, Host  Desecration, 
and   Blood    Accusation) 

Persia,  9-11,  34,  45 

Peter   the   Cruel,   65 

Petronius,  20 

Pfefferkorn,  John,  82,  83 

Pharisees,   16,  24 

Philadelphia,   123 

Philip,  son  of  Herod,  18 

—  IV  of  France,  63 

—  V  of  France,  64 
Philippi,   Battle   of,   18 
Philippson,  Ludwig,  122 
Philo,    11 

Pick,   Isaiah,  98 

Pilpul,  38 

Pinsk,  109 

Pinsker,  Leon,  114 

Pinski,  David,  120 

Pirke,  Rabbi  Eliezer,  51 

Pius  V,  79 

— ,  Marcus  Antoninus,  26,  30 

Piyut,  50 

Podolia,   86 

Poland,  60,  69,  79,  81,  86,  87, 

93,   109,   110 
Polna,   113 
Pompey,    17 
Pontius   Pilate,  19 
Popes,  42,  43,  54,  59,  63,  65, 

67,  78-80,  82,  105 
Portugal,  67,  80,  85,  89-91 
Press,   Jewish,    118,    122,    123 


144 


INDEX 


Preuss,  Hugo,  117 

Printing,   68,    79,   83 

Priscus,  43 

Propaganda,  24,  33 

Protestantism,  80,  81 

Prussia  (See  Berlin  and  Ger- 
many), 101,  103,  105 

Ptolemy,  of  Egypt,  12 

— ,  son-in-law  of  Simon  the 
Maccabee,  15 

Pumbeditha,  School  of,  38, 
45,  47 

Quietus,  24 
Quirinius,  19 

Rab  (see  Abba  Areka) 
Raba,  39 

Rabba  bar  Nahmani,  38 
Rabbenu-Hakadosh    (see  Ju- 
dah  Hanasi) 

—  Tam,  58 

Rabbi    (see   Judah   Hanasi) 

Rabina,  38 

Rabinowitch,  Shalom,  120 

Ramban,   74,   76 

Rapoport,      Solomon      Loew, 

127 
Rashba     (see     Solomon     ibn 

Adret) 
Rashbam,   57,   58 
Rashi,  57,  58 
Ratisbon,  62,  63 
Ravenna,  33,  42 
Rebellion     of     Jews,     under 

Trajan,  25 
Reform  Movement,   130-2 
Reformation,  80,  82,  87,  93 
Reggio,  Isaac  Samuel,  127 
Reisim,  Abr,  120 
Renaissance,  82,  93,  94 
Resh  Galutha,  45 

—  Methibta,  45 
Responsa    (see  Teshubot) 
Reubeni,  David,  79 
Reuchlin,  John,   82 
Reyna,  77 


Rhode  Island,  85,  91,  100 
Ribash       (see       Isaac       ben 

Sheshet) 
Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  54 
Riesser,  Gabriel,   106 
Rieti,   Moses,   72 
Rindfleisch   riot,  61,   75 
Roettingen,   61 
Rohling,    August,    113 
Rokeah,  76 
Romano,  Elijah,  79 
— ,  Solomon,  79 
Rome,    17   sq.    (See    Popes), 

103,  105 
Rosenfeld,  Morris,  120 
Rosh,  75 

Rosheim,  Josel,  83 
Rossi,  Azariah  dei  (see  Aza- 

riah) 
Rothenburg,    62 
Rothschild,  Baron  Lionel  de, 

107 
— ,  Baron    Nathaniel   de,   107 
Rousseau,  Jean  J.,  100 
Rumania,  110,  113 
Russia,    82,    93,    108-11,    113, 

121,  126 

Saadya  Gaon,  47,  48 
Sabbatai  Zevi,  85,  86,  98 
Saboraim,  38 
Sacher-Masoch,  Leopold  von, 

121 
Sadducees,  16 
Safed,   78,  95 
Saladin,  70 

Salman  ben  Jeroham,  48 
Salome  Alexandra,   16 
Salomons,    David,    107 
Salzburg,  62 
Samaritans,     Conversion    of, 

15 
Samuel  of  Naharder,  37 

—  ben  Meir   (see  Rashbam) 
— ,  Sir   Herbert,   115,   116 

—  Hanagid,  55 
^  ibn  Adijah,  40 


INDEX 


145 


Samuel  ibn  Hofni,  48 

— ,  Sir  Stuart,  109 

San   Benito.  66 

Sanhedrin,  27,  28,  2>7 ,  104 

San    Remo,    115 

Sargon,  9 

Saxony,  62 

Schechter,  Solomon,  132 

Schiff,  Jacob  H.,   133 

Schlessinger,  Akiba  Jos.,  133 

Schneor,  Zalman,   120 

Schnitzler,   Arthur,    122 

Schools,   Modern,    124-6 

Schorr,    Moses,    129 

Scotus,  Duns,  55 

Schreiber,     Moses      (Sofer), 

123 
"Science  of  Judaism,"  127 
Secular    Education,    Rise    of, 

118,  124 
Seder  Rab  Amram,  46 
Seesen,  130 
Sefer  Hayashar,  58 
Seleucus,  12 

Seligmann,  Aaron  Elias,  101 
Selim  I,  Sultan,  77 
Semag,   76 
Servet,  Michael,  81 
Servia,  110 

Severus,  Alexander,  26 
— ,  Septimius,  26 
Seville,  68 

"Shebet    Jehudah,"    98 
Sheeltot,  46 

Shepherd    Crusaders,   64 
Sherira,  Epistle  of,  47 
Shesheth,  38 
Shtadlan,  83 

Shulhan  Aruk,  72,  95,  96 
Sicarii,  20 
Sidra,  45 
Siena,  103 

Silbermann,    Lazarus,    122 
Simeon  bar  Isaac,  52 

—  ben  Azai,  29 

—  ben   Gamaliel   II,  30 

—  ben  Lakish,  35 


Simeon  ben  Shetach,  16 

—  ben  Yohai,  76,  98 

—  Kayara,  46 

— ,  the  Stylite,  St.,  34 
Simon,  the  reformer,  13 
— ,  the  Maccabee,  15 
— ,  of  Trent,  62 
Simonsen,  David,  128 
Smolensky,   Perez,   119 
Sofer,  Moses,  123 
Soliman  II,  Sultan,  77 
Solomon     ben    Abraham    of 
Montpellier,  74 

—  ben  Isaac   (see  Rashi) 

—  Halevi    (see  Paul,  Bishop 

of  Burgos) 

—  Ibn  Adret  (Rashba),  74 

—  ibn  Gabirol,  55 

—  Ibn    Verga,   98 
— ,  son  of  Judah,  71 
Soncino  family,  83 
Sonnenthal,    Adolf    von,    129 
Spain,  43,  44,  54,  56,  64,  70, 

73,  77,  90,  98 
Spector,   Isaac   Elhanan,   124 
Speyer,  53 

Spinoza,  Benedict,  85 
St.  Jean  de  Luz,  90 
Steinhart,  Joseph,  98 
Steinschneider,   Moritz,   128 
Strack,  H.  L.,  113 
Straus,  Oscar  S.,  117 
Stuyvesant,      Governor,      84, 

91 
Styria,   62 
Subotniki,  82 
Sullam,  Sarah  Copia,  94 
Sultans,  77 

Sura,  School  in,  27,  45,  47 
Sweden,    106 
Switzerland,    106 
Sydney,  92 
Syria,  12,   13,  15 
Szold,    Benjamin,    132 

Talmud,   Burning  of,  63,  71 
— ,  Palestinian,  36 


146 


INDEX 


Talmud,  Babylonian,  38,  52, 
57,  58,  71,  74,  79,  94 

Talmudic  Dictionaries,  46,  58 

— ,  Literature,   74 

Tanaim,  30,  35 

Targum,  34 

Tarnopol,   125 

Tashbez  (Simeon  Duran),  75 

Tchernichowsky,    Saul,    120 

Terumat  Ha-Deshen,  76 

Teshubot  (Responsa),  45,  48, 
52,  74,  75 

Theodoric,  41 

Theodosius  I,  33 

—  II,  35 

Tiberias,   School  of,  35 

Tineius  Rufus,  25 

Tisa-Eszlar,  112,  122 

Tishbi,  93 

Titus,  21 

Toledo,  65 

"Toleranz-Edict,"    102 

Torquemada,   Thomas,  66 

Tortosa,   Disputation  at,   65 

Tosafists,  58 

Tractatus  Theologico  Politi- 
cus,  85 

Trajan,  24 

Trani,  Isaiah  di,  75 

Trans-Caucasia,   82 

Tremellius,  Emanuel,  81 

Trent,  Blood  Accusation  at, 
62,  68 

— ,  Council  of,  79 

Trigland,   Jacob,   49 

Trimberg,   Susskind  von,  73 

Tripoli,    24 

Troczkai,  John,  81 

Trotsky,   Leon,   109 

Tryphon,   15 

Turim,   75 

Turks,   70,   77 

Ukraine,    110,    112 
Uman,  125 

Union  of  American  Hebrew 
Congregations,  133 


LTnited  States  (see  America) 
Uriel  Acosta,  85 
Usha,  Synod  at,  30 
Usque,   Samuel,   98 

Varus,   19 

Vaszony,    William,    112 

Venetia,  78 

Venice,  77-9 

Versailles,  Treaty  of,  110,  116 

Vespasian,  21,  27 

Vida,  Elijah  de,  96 

Vienna,   Congress  of,  105 

— ,  School  for  blind  and  deaf 

mutes,  126 
Visigoths,  43 
Vital,    Hayyim,   96 
Volhynia,  86 

V/ar,  World,  108-11,  122,  125, 

133,  134 
V/ashington,  George,  92 
Weill,   Alexander,    121 
Wejgiel,   Catherine,  81 
Wenzel,  King  of  Bohemia,  61 
Wertheimer,  Samson,  88 
Wesel,  Naphtali  Herz,  118 
Wessely         Hartwig         (see 

Wesel) 
West  India  Company,  84 
William  of  Norwich,  54 
Williams,  Roger,  85,  91,   100 
Wise,  Isaac  M.,  122,  132 
Wolf,   Lucien,   128 
— ,  Moses  Benj.,  88 
Wolfenstein,   Martha,    121 
Wolkenburg,   Castle,  53 
Wollemberg,  Leon,  116 
Worms,  53 
Wuerzburg,  53 

Xanten,   113 

Ydhuda,  A.  S.,  68 

Yalkut  Alachiri,  73 

—^  Shimeoni,   73 

Yellow  Badge,  54,  65,  78,  102 


INDEX 


147 


Yezirah,   Sefer,  46 
Yiddish.   70,    120,    122, 
Yoreh  Deah,  75 


123 


Zadok,  16 

Zangwill,    Israel,    114,    121 
Zealots,   19,  21,  27 
"Zemali  David,"  99 
Zemah  Gaon    46,  58 
Zemstvo,       Jews       excluded 
from  the,  108 


Zerahiali  TIalevi,  74 

Zerubbabel,   10 

Zevi,      Sabbatai      (sec 

batai) 
Zion,  Ode  to,  55 
— ,  Lovers  of,   113 
Zionism,    115,    119,    125 
Zohar,  Id,  98 
Ziinz,   Leopold,   127 
Zweij?,  Arnold,  122 
— ,  Stephen,  122 


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